Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Dynamic Radiative Cooling: Mechanisms, Strategies, and Applications for Smart Thermal Management

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01981-0
Yan Dong
Department of Thermal Energy and Power Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264000, People’s Republic of China
Boxi Tian
Department of Thermal Energy and Power Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264000, People’s Republic of China
Cunhai Wang
School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, People’s Republic of China
Guoliang Zhang
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, People’s Republic of China
Fengjiao Hua
Department of Thermal Energy and Power Engineering, Yantai University, Yantai 264000, People’s Republic of China
Weifeng Meng
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, People’s Republic of China
Chunzhe Li
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, People’s Republic of China
Yuying Yan
Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
Ziming Cheng
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, People’s Republic of China
Fuqiang Wang
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Fuqiang Wang

wangfuqiang@hitwh.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 146

Abstract

As an emerging thermal management strategy, dynamic radiative cooling (DRC) technology enables dynamic modulation of spectral radiation properties under varying environmental conditions through the directional design of material spectral characteristics. However, a comprehensive review of the basic physical mechanisms of radiative heat transfer in DRC materials and various design principles involved in dynamic radiative thermal regulation is still lacking. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in this field, spanning from fundamental physical principles to intrinsic molecular and electronic mechanisms, and further to representative material systems and multi-band regulation strategies, highlighting the interdisciplinary research achievements and technological innovations. This work outlines the core mechanisms governing the regulation of different spectral bands during radiative heat transfer processes. Then, the main categories of DRC materials are systematically reviewed, including actively responsive structures, passively responsive structures, and multi-stimuli-responsive materials. Furthermore, the challenges faced by current DRC technology and future development trends are summarized and discussed, providing valuable reference and guidance for further research in this field. Although DRC technologies still face significant challenges in material stability, manufacturing processes, and system integration, the continuous advances in related areas and multifunctional materials are expected to broaden the application prospects of DRC in the future.


Highlights:
1 This review systematically summarizes recent advances in dynamic radiative cooling (DRC), spanning from fundamental physical principles to intrinsic molecular and electronic mechanisms, and further to representative material systems.
2 This study deeply explored the innovative design of DRC technology in active response materials, passive response materials, and multi-stimuli response materials.
3 The current challenges and development trends of DRC technology are comprehensively analyzed, providing reference and guidance for further research in this field.

Keywords

Dynamic radiative cooling Solar energy Radiative transfer Radiative regulation Thermal management
Dong, Yan, Boxi Tian, Cunhai Wang, Guoliang Zhang, Fengjiao Hua, Weifeng Meng, Chunzhe Li, Yuying Yan, Ziming Cheng, and Fuqiang Wang. 2026. “Dynamic Radiative Cooling: Mechanisms, Strategies, and Applications for Smart Thermal Management”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (January):146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01981-0.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. L. Xie, X. Wang, Y. Bai, X. Zou, X. Liu, Fast-developing dynamic radiative thermal management: full-scale fundamentals, switching methods, applications, and challenges. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 146 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01676-6
  2. J. Xu, P. Wang, Z. Bai, H. Cheng, R. Wang et al., Sustainable moisture energy. Nat. Rev. Mater. 9(10), 722–737 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-023-00643-0
  3. C. Wang, H. Chen, F. Wang, Passive daytime radiative cooling materials toward real-world applications. Prog. Mater. Sci. 144, 101276 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2024.101276
  4. Z. Yan, H. Zhai, D. Fan, Q. Li, Biological optics, photonics and bioinspired radiative cooling. Prog. Mater. Sci. 144, 101291 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2024.101291
  5. Q. Xu, X. Liu, Q. Luo, H. Yao, Y. Tian et al., Bioinspired spectrally selective phase-change composites for enhanced solar thermal energy storage. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(1), 2412066 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202412066
  6. IEA, Energy Efficiency (IEA, Paris, 2024)
  7. E. Rephaeli, A. Raman, S. Fan, Ultrabroadband photonic structures to achieve high-performance daytime radiative cooling. Nano Lett. 13(4), 1457–1461 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl4004283
  8. M.M. Hossain, B. Jia, M. Gu, A metamaterial emitter for highly efficient radiative cooling. Adv. Opt. Mater. 3(8), 1047–1051 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.201500119
  9. Y. Zhai, Y. Ma, S.N. David, D. Zhao, R. Lou et al., Scalable-manufactured randomized glass-polymer hybrid metamaterial for daytime radiative cooling. Science 355(6329), 1062–1066 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aai7899
  10. J. Mandal, Y. Fu, A.C. Overvig, M. Jia, K. Sun et al., Hierarchically porous polymer coatings for highly efficient passive daytime radiative cooling. Science 362(6412), 315–319 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat9513
  11. T. Li, Y. Zhai, S. He, W. Gan, Z. Wei et al., A radiative cooling structural material. Science 364(6442), 760–763 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau9101
  12. K. Tang, K. Dong, J. Li, M.P. Gordon, F.G. Reichertz et al., Temperature-adaptive radiative coating for all-season household thermal regulation. Science 374(6574), 1504–1509 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abf7136
  13. S. Wang, T. Jiang, Y. Meng, R. Yang, G. Tan et al., Scalable thermochromic smart windows with passive radiative cooling regulation. Science 374(6574), 1501–1504 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg0291
  14. S. Zeng, S. Pian, M. Su, Z. Wang, M. Wu et al., Hierarchical-morphology metafabric for scalable passive daytime radiative cooling. Science 373(6555), 692–696 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abi5484
  15. Y. Peng, J.-C. Lai, X. Xiao, W. Jin, J. Zhou et al., Colorful low-emissivity paints for space heating and cooling energy savings. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 120(34), e2300856120 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2300856120
  16. Y. Peng, W. Li, B. Liu, W. Jin, J. Schaadt et al., Integrated cooling (i-Cool) textile of heat conduction and sweat transportation for personal perspiration management. Nat. Commun. 12(1), 6122 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26384-8
  17. S. Dang, H.H. Almahfoudh, A.M. Alajlan, H. Qasem, J. Wang et al., Sky cooling for LED streetlights. Light. Sci. Appl. 14, 100 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-024-01724-7
  18. G. Huang, A.R. Yengannagari, K. Matsumori, P. Patel, A. Datla et al., Radiative cooling and indoor light management enabled by a transparent and self-cleaning polymer-based metamaterial. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 3798 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48150-2
  19. J. Xu, X. Wu, Y. Li, S. Zhao, F. Lan et al., High-performance radiative cooling sunscreen. Nano Lett. 24(47), 15178–15185 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c04969
  20. A.-Q. Xie, H. Qiu, W. Jiang, Y. Wang, S. Niu et al., Recent advances in spectrally selective daytime radiative cooling materials. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 264 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01771-8
  21. N.N. Shi, C.-C. Tsai, F. Camino, G.D. Bernard, N. Yu et al., Keeping cool: enhanced optical reflection and radiative heat dissipation in Saharan silver ants. Science 349(6245), 298–301 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab3564
  22. M. Pandolfi, Annuaire du bureau des longitudes pour 1900. Il Nuovo Cimento 11(1), 71–71 (1900). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02720442
  23. T.S. Eriksson, C.G. Granqvist, Radiative cooling computed for model atmospheres. Appl. Opt. 21(23), 4381 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.21.004381
  24. X.S. Ge, X.L. Sun, Radiation cooling and the effect of spectral selective characteristics of the radiator on cooling power. Acta Energiae Solaris Sinica 3, 128–136 (1982). https://doi.org/10.19912/j.0254-0096.1982.02.002
  25. N. Wang, Y. Lv, D. Zhao, W. Zhao, J. Xu et al., Performance evaluation of radiative cooling for commercial-scale warehouse. Mater. Today Energy 24, 100927 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2021.100927
  26. D. Miao, N. Cheng, X. Wang, J. Yu, B. Ding, Integration of Janus wettability and heat conduction in hierarchically designed textiles for all-day personal radiative cooling. Nano Lett. 22(2), 680–687 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c03801
  27. L. Yuan, S. Jia, S. Shao, H.M. Asfahan, X. Li, A self-cleaning Janus textile for highly efficient heating and cooling management. Nano Lett. 25(19), 8019–8026 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c01738
  28. H. Zou, C. Wang, J. Yu, D. Huang, R. Yang et al., Eliminating greenhouse heat stress with transparent radiative cooling film. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 4(8), 101539 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2023.101539
  29. X. Li, W. Xie, C. Sui, P.-C. Hsu, Multispectral thermal management designs for net-zero energy buildings. ACS Mater. Lett. 2(12), 1624–1643 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmaterialslett.0c00322
  30. J. Wei, H. Chen, J. Liu, F. Wang, C. Wang, Radiative cooling technologies toward enhanced energy efficiency of solar cells: materials, systems, and perspectives. Nano Energy 136, 110680 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.110680
  31. K. Dong, D. Tseng, J. Li, S. Warkander, J. Yao et al., Reducing temperature swing of space objects with temperature-adaptive solar or radiative coating. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3(10), 101066 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.101066
  32. J. Li, Y. Liang, W. Li, N. Xu, B. Zhu et al., Protecting ice from melting under sunlight via radiative cooling. Sci. Adv. 8(6), eabj9756 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abj9756
  33. S. Liu, C. Sui, M. Harbinson, M. Pudlo, H. Perera et al., A scalable microstructure photonic coating fabricated by roll-to-roll “defects” for daytime subambient passive radiative cooling. Nano Lett. 23(17), 7767–7774 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c00111
  34. C. Cheng, J. Liu, F. Wang, C. Wang, Photonic structures in multispectral camouflage: from static to dynamic technologies. Mater. Today 85, 253–281 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2025.02.016
  35. Y. Yang, G. Zhang, L. Rong, Impact of cloud and total column water vapor on annual performance of passive daytime radiative cooler. Energy Convers. Manag. 273, 116420 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116420
  36. Y. Cui, Y. Ke, C. Liu, Z. Chen, N. Wang et al., Thermochromic VO2 for energy-efficient smart windows. Joule 2(9), 1707–1746 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.06.018
  37. M. Chen, J. Deng, H. Zhang, X. Zhang, D. Yan et al., Advanced dual-band smart windows: inorganic all-solid-state electrochromic devices for selective visible and near-infrared modulation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(3), 2413659 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202413659
  38. G. Li, X. Jiang, H. Asfahan, S. Jia, S. Shao et al., Humidity-controlled smart window with synchronous solar and thermal radiation regulation. Adv. Sci. 12(33), e06980 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202506980
  39. Y. An, Y. Fu, J.-G. Dai, X. Yin, D. Lei, Switchable radiative cooling technologies for smart thermal management. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3(10), 101098 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.101098
  40. G. Li, J. Wang, X. Zhao, Y. Su, D. Zhao, Simultaneous modulation of solar and longwave infrared radiation for smart window applications. Mater. Today Phys. 38, 101284 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtphys.2023.101284
  41. K. Lin, J. Chen, A. Pan, H. Li, Y. Fu et al., Beyond the static: dynamic radiative cooling materials and applications. Mater. Today Energy 44, 101647 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2024.101647
  42. X. Zhao, J. Li, K. Dong, J. Wu, Switchable and tunable radiative cooling: mechanisms, applications, and perspectives. ACS Nano 18(28), 18118–18128 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c05929
  43. S. Fan, W. Li, Photonics and thermodynamics concepts in radiative cooling. Nat. Photon. 16(3), 182–190 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-021-00921-9
  44. D. Han, J. Fei, J. Mandal, Z. Liu, H. Li et al., Sub-ambient radiative cooling under tropical climate using highly reflective polymeric coating. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 240, 111723 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111723
  45. Y. Yin, M. Zhang, Z. Wang, Colored designs for radiative cooling: progress and perspectives. Adv. Mater. Technol. 10(11), 2402112 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202402112
  46. Z. Cheng, B. Lin, X. Shi, F. Wang, H. Liang et al., Influences of atmospheric water vapor on spectral effective emissivity of a single-layer radiative cooling coating. AIMS Energy 9(1), 96–116 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3934/energy.2021006
  47. L. Liu, J. Wang, Q. Li, Passive daytime radiative cooling polymeric materials: structure design, fabrication, and applications. Appl. Mater. Today 39, 102331 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2024.102331
  48. W. Li, S. Buddhiraju, S. Fan, Thermodynamic limits for simultaneous energy harvesting from the hot sun and cold outer space. Light Sci. Appl. 9, 68 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-020-0296-x
  49. J. Li, X. Wang, D. Liang, N. Xu, B. Zhu et al., A tandem radiative/evaporative cooler for weather-insensitive and high-performance daytime passive cooling. Sci. Adv. 8(32), eabq0411 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abq0411
  50. K.-T. Lin, J. Han, K. Li, C. Guo, H. Lin et al., Radiative cooling: fundamental physics, atmospheric influences, materials and structural engineering, applications and beyond. Nano Energy 80, 105517 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105517
  51. B. Xie, W. Zhang, J. Zhao, C. Zheng, L. Liu, Design of VO2-based spacecraft smart radiator with low solar absorptance. Appl. Therm. Eng. 236, 121751 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121751
  52. J. Li, Y. Tao, S. Rao, W. Ma, M. Li et al., Core–shell rGO-BN heterostructures endowing polybutadiene composites with high thermal conductivity and efficient microwave absorption. Adv. Funct. Mater. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202508494
  53. J. Yang, X. Zhang, X. Zhang, L. Wang, W. Feng et al., Beyond the visible: bioinspired infrared adaptive materials. Adv. Mater. 33(14), 2004754 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202004754
  54. H. Zhu, Q. Li, C. Tao, Y. Hong, Z. Xu et al., Multispectral camouflage for infrared, visible, lasers and microwave with radiative cooling. Nat. Commun. 12(1), 1805 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22051-0
  55. C. Li, C. Cao, H. Luo, P. Jin, X. Cao, Temperature-adaptive radiative modulator for multi-domain safety applications. Device 2(8), 100407 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.device.2024.100407
  56. Y. Tao, J. Li, Y. Qian, S. Gang, H. He et al., GO-HNT framework-based hydrogels with efficient water evaporation-driven cooling and superior electromagnetic wave absorption. Mater. Horiz. 12(17), 7000–7011 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/D5MH00932D
  57. Y. Ke, C. Zhou, Y. Zhou, S. Wang, S.H. Chan et al., Emerging thermal-responsive materials and integrated techniques targeting the energy-efficient smart window application. Adv. Funct. Mater. 28(22), 1800113 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201800113
  58. X. Zhang, X. Li, F. Wang, W. Yuan, Z. Cheng et al., Low-cost and large-scale producible biomimetic radiative cooling glass with multiband radiative regulation performance. Adv. Opt. Mater. 10(23), 2270093 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.202270093
  59. Y. Li, X. Chen, L. Yu, D. Pang, H. Yan et al., Janus interface engineering boosting visibly transparent radiative cooling for energy saving. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(3), 4122–4131 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c20462
  60. H. Zhai, D. Fan, Q. Li, Dynamic radiation regulations for thermal comfort. Nano Energy 100, 107435 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107435
  61. Y. Dong, X. Zhang, L. Chen, W. Meng, C. Wang et al., Progress in passive daytime radiative cooling: a review from optical mechanism, performance test, and application. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 188, 113801 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113801
  62. H. Zhang, K.C.S. Ly, X. Liu, Z. Chen, M. Yan et al., Biologically inspired flexible photonic films for efficient passive radiative cooling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 117(26), 14657–14666 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2001802117
  63. X. Yu, J. Chan, C. Chen, Review of radiative cooling materials: performance evaluation and design approaches. Nano Energy 88, 106259 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106259
  64. Y. Dong, H. Han, F. Wang, Y. Zhang, Z. Cheng et al., A low-cost sustainable coating: improving passive daytime radiative cooling performance using the spectral band complementarity method. Renew. Energy 192, 606–616 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.04.093
  65. X. Li, J. Peoples, P. Yao, X. Ruan, Ultrawhite BaSO4 paints and films for remarkable daytime subambient radiative cooling. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(18), 21733–21739 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c02368
  66. Z. Cheng, F. Wang, D. Gong, H. Liang, Y. Shuai, Low-cost radiative cooling blade coating with ultrahigh visible light transmittance and emission within an “atmospheric window.” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 213, 110563 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2020.110563
  67. X. Liu, C. Xiao, P. Wang, M. Yan, H. Wang et al., Biomimetic photonic multiform composite for high-performance radiative cooling. Adv. Opt. Mater. 9(22), 2101151 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.202101151
  68. Y. Peng, J. Chen, A.Y. Song, P.B. Catrysse, P.-C. Hsu et al., Nanoporous polyethylene microfibres for large-scale radiative cooling fabric. Nat. Sustain. 1(2), 105–112 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0023-2
  69. R. Liu, S. Wang, Z. Zhou, K. Zhang, G. Wang et al., Materials in radiative cooling technologies. Adv. Mater. 37(2), 2401577 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202401577
  70. Y. Dong, Y. Zou, X. Li, F. Wang, Z. Cheng et al., Introducing masking layer for daytime radiative cooling coating to realize high optical performance, thin thickness, and excellent durability in long-term outdoor application. Appl. Energy 344, 121273 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121273
  71. H. Liang, F. Wang, D. Zhang, Z. Cheng, C. Zhang et al., Experimental investigation of cost-effective ZnO nanofluid based spectral splitting CPV/T system. Energy 194, 116913 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.116913
  72. H.H. Kim, E. Im, S. Lee, Colloidal photonic assemblies for colorful radiative cooling. Langmuir 36(23), 6589–6596 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c00051
  73. B. Zhao, C. Xu, C. Jin, K. Lu, K. Chen et al., Superhydrophobic bilayer coating for passive daytime radiative cooling. Nanophotonics 13(5), 583–591 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0511
  74. P. Li, A. Wang, J. Fan, Q. Kang, P. Jiang et al., Thermo-optically designed scalable photonic films with high thermal conductivity for subambient and above-ambient radiative cooling. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(5), 2109542 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202109542
  75. N.M. Ravindra, P. Ganapathy, J. Choi, Energy gap–refractive index relations in semiconductors–an overview. Infrared Phys. Technol. 50(1), 21–29 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2006.04.001
  76. T.S. Moss, Relations between the refractive index and energy gap of semiconductors. Phys. Status Solidi B 131(2), 415–427 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1002/pssb.2221310202
  77. Refractive index darebase. https://refractiveindex.info/ (2025).
  78. T. Du, J. Niu, L. Wang, J. Bai, S. Wang et al., Daytime radiative cooling coating based on the Y2O3/TiO2 microp-embedded PDMS polymer on energy-saving buildings. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(45), 51351–51360 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c15854
  79. C. Lin, Y. Li, C. Chi, Y.S. Kwon, J. Huang et al., A solution-processed inorganic emitter with high spectral selectivity for efficient subambient radiative cooling in hot humid climates. Adv. Mater. 34(12), 2109350 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202109350
  80. Z. Tong, J. Peoples, X. Li, X. Yang, H. Bao et al., Electronic and phononic origins of BaSO4 as an ultra-efficient radiative cooling paint pigment. Mater. Today Phys. 24, 100658 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtphys.2022.100658
  81. R. Zhang, M. Yin, P. Shao, Q. Huang, G.A. Niklasson et al., Polaron hopping induced dual-band absorption in all amorphous cathodic electrochromic oxides. Appl. Phys. Rev. 12, 011404 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0244549
  82. H. Li, X. Song, H. Gong, L. Tong, X. Zhou et al., Prediction of optical properties in particulate media using double optimization of dependent scattering and p distribution. Nano Lett. 24(1), 287–294 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c03914
  83. P. Li, Y. Liu, X. Liu, A. Wang, W. Liu et al., Reversed yolk–shell dielectric scatterers for advanced radiative cooling. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(23), 2315658 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202315658
  84. A. Zhang, F. Wang, H. Zou, J. Song, Z. Cheng et al., Effect of statistical positional correlation on the radiative property investigation of dispersed particulate medium. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 160, 108396 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2024.108396
  85. Y. Meng, X. Li, S. Wang, C. Lau, H. Hu et al., Flexible smart photovoltaic foil for energy generation and conservation in buildings. Nano Energy 91, 106632 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106632
  86. Y. Wang, X. Zhang, S. Liu, Y. Liu, Q. Zhou et al., Thermal-rectified gradient porous polymeric film for solar-thermal regulatory cooling. Adv. Mater. 36(26), e2400102 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202400102
  87. S.-J. Park, S.-B. Seo, J. Shim, S.J. Hong, G. Kang et al., Three-dimensionally printable hollow silica nanops for subambient passive cooling. Nanophotonics 13(5), 611–620 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0603
  88. D. Xie, Z. Yang, X. Liu, S. Cui, H. Zhou et al., Broadband omnidirectional light reflection and radiative heat dissipation in white beetles Goliathus goliatus. Soft Matter 15(21), 4294–4300 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1039/c9sm00566h
  89. K. Feng, Y. Wu, X. Pei, F. Zhou, Passive daytime radiative cooling: from mechanism to materials and applications. Mater. Today Energy 43, 101575 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2024.101575
  90. C. Cai, Z. Wei, C. Ding, B. Sun, W. Chen et al., Dynamically tunable all-weather daytime cellulose aerogel radiative supercooler for energy-saving building. Nano Lett. 22(10), 4106–4114 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c00844
  91. S. Popova, T. Tolstykh, V. Vorobev, Optical characteristics of amorphous quartz in the 1400–200cm-1 region. Opt. Spectrosc. 33, 444–445 (1972)
  92. M.J. Yoo, K.R. Pyun, Y. Jung, M. Lee, J. Lee et al., Switchable radiative cooling and solar heating for sustainable thermal management. Nanophotonics 13(5), 543–561 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0627
  93. L. Zhou, H. Song, J. Liang, M. Singer, M. Zhou et al., A polydimethylsiloxane-coated metal structure for all-day radiative cooling. Nat. Sustain. 2(8), 718–724 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0348-5
  94. Z. Cheng, H. Han, F. Wang, Y. Yan, X. Shi et al., Efficient radiative cooling coating with biomimetic human skin wrinkle structure. Nano Energy 89, 106377 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106377
  95. B. Zhao, K. Lu, M. Hu, K. Wang, D. Gao et al., Sub-ambient daytime radiative cooling based on continuous sunlight blocking. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 245, 111854 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111854
  96. A. Aili, Z.Y. Wei, Y.Z. Chen, D.L. Zhao, R.G. Yang et al., Selection of polymers with functional groups for daytime radiative cooling. Mater. Today Phys. 10, 100127 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtphys.2019.100127
  97. B.H. Stuart, Infrared Spectroscopy: Fundamentals and Applications (Wiley, New York, 2004). https://doi.org/10.1002/0470011149
  98. K. Zhang, B. Wu, Microscopic mechanism and applications of radiative cooling materials: a comprehensive review. Mater. Today Phys. 51, 101643 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtphys.2024.101643
  99. W. Cai, L. Qi, T. Cui, B. Lin, M.Z. Rahman et al., Chameleon-inspired, dipole moment-increasing, fire-retardant strategies toward promoting the practical application of radiative cooling materials. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(2), 2412902 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202412902
  100. H. Zhang, X. Zhang, W. Sun, M. Chen, Y. Xiao et al., All-solid-state transparent variable infrared emissivity devices for multi-mode smart windows. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(16), 2307356 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202307356
  101. H. Liang, F. Wang, L. Yang, Z. Cheng, Y. Shuai et al., Progress in full spectrum solar energy utilization by spectral beam splitting hybrid PV/T system. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 141, 110785 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110785
  102. B. Wang, L. Li, H. Liu, T. Wang, K. Zhang et al., Switchable daytime radiative cooling and nighttime radiative warming by VO2. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 280, 113291 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2024.113291
  103. J. Zhao, Y. Zhong, L. Zhang, L. Sui, G. Wu et al., Relaxation channels of two types of hot carriers in gold nanostructures. Nano Lett. 24(48), 15340–15347 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c04431
  104. Y. Liu, S. Lee, Y. Yin, M. Li, M. Cotlet et al., Near-band-edge enhancement in perovskite solar cells via tunable surface plasmons. Adv. Opt. Mater. 10(22), 2201116 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.202201116
  105. Z. Zhang, B. Cao, Thermal smart materials with tunable thermal conductivity: mechanisms, materials, and applications. Sci. China Phys. Mech. Astron. 65(11), 117003 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11433-022-1925-2
  106. H. Cai, Z. Zhong, Q. Nong, P. Gao, J. He, Design and optimization of SiOx/AZO transparent passivating contacts for high-efficiency crystalline silicon solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(52), 2411207 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202411207
  107. H. Shao, K. Yin, N. Xu, Y. Zhang, Z. Shi et al., Adaptive surfaces with stimuli-responsive wettability: from tailoring to applications. ACS Nano 19(7), 6729–6747 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c17475
  108. D. Carne, J. Peoples, F. Arentz, X. Ruan, True benefits of multiple nanop sizes in radiative cooling paints identified with machine learning. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 222, 125209 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2024.125209
  109. M. Chen, D. Pang, J. Mandal, X. Chen, H. Yan et al., Designing mesoporous photonic structures for high-performance passive daytime radiative cooling. Nano Lett. 21(3), 1412–1418 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c04241
  110. M.T. Strand, T.S. Hernandez, M.G. Danner, A.L. Yeang, N. Jarvey et al., Polymer inhibitors enable >900 cm2 dynamic windows based on reversible metal electrodeposition with high solar modulation. Nat. Energy 6(5), 546–554 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00816-7
  111. X. Tao, D. Liu, T. Liu, Z. Meng, J. Yu et al., A bistable variable infrared emissivity device based on reversible silver electrodeposition. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(32), 2202661 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202202661
  112. D. Banerjee, T. Hallberg, S. Chen, C. Kuang, M. Liao et al., Electrical tuning of radiative cooling at ambient conditions. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 4(2), 101274 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2023.101274
  113. B. Wang, G. Xu, S. Song, Z. Ren, D. Liu et al., Flexible, infrared adjustable, thermal radiation control device based on electro-emissive PANI/Ce4+ thin films inspired by chameleon. Chem. Eng. J. 445, 136819 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.136819
  114. M.S. Ergoktas, G. Bakan, E. Kovalska, L.W. Le Fevre, R.P. Fields et al., Multispectral graphene-based electro-optical surfaces with reversible tunability from visible to microwave wavelengths. Nat. Photonics 15(7), 493–498 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-021-00791-1
  115. Z. Wang, M. Zhu, S. Gou, Z. Pang, Y. Wang et al., Pairing of luminescent switch with electrochromism for quasi-solid-state dual-function smart windows. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10(37), 31697–31703 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b10790
  116. M. Li, D. Liu, H. Cheng, L. Peng, M. Zu, Manipulating metals for adaptive thermal camouflage. Sci. Adv. 6(22), eaba3494 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba3494
  117. C. Sui, J. Pu, T.-H. Chen, J. Liang, Y.-T. Lai et al., Dynamic electrochromism for all-season radiative thermoregulation. Nat. Sustain. 6(4), 428–437 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-01023-2
  118. X. Zhao, A. Aili, D. Zhao, D. Xu, X. Yin et al., Dynamic glazing with switchable solar reflectance for radiative cooling and solar heating. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3(4), 100853 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100853
  119. Y. Rao, J. Dai, C. Sui, Y.-T. Lai, Z. Li et al., Ultra-wideband transparent conductive electrode for electrochromic synergistic solar and radiative heat management. ACS Energy Lett. 6(11), 3906–3915 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.1c01486
  120. Y. Jia, D. Liu, D. Chen, Y. Jin, C. Chen et al., Transparent dynamic infrared emissivity regulators. Nat. Commun. 14, 5087 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40902-w
  121. T.-H. Chen, Y. Hong, C.-T. Fu, A. Nandi, W. Xie et al., A kirigami-enabled electrochromic wearable variable-emittance device for energy-efficient adaptive personal thermoregulation. PNAS Nexus 2(6), pgad165 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad165
  122. J. Mandal, S. Du, M. Dontigny, K. Zaghib, N. Yu et al., Li4Ti5O12: a visible-to-infrared broadband electrochromic material for optical and thermal management. Adv. Funct. Mater. 28(36), 1802180 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201802180
  123. J. Li, Y. Tao, Z. Zhang, Y. Luo, X. Li et al., Resilient thermal interface materials with low thermal contact resistance and high modulus via hybrid cross-linking strategy. ACS Mater. Lett. 7(6), 2133–2141 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmaterialslett.5c00510
  124. Y. Yang, Y. Liu, Y. Chen, L. Wang, W. Feng, Bioinspired stretchable polymers for dynamic optical and thermal regulation. Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 5(5), 2300289 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202300289
  125. H. Zhao, B. Li, Y. Wang, X. Zhou, J. Cui, Anisotropic mechano-adaptive cavitation in elastomers for unclonable covert–overt anti-counterfeiting. J. Mater. Chem. C 10(10), 3677–3684 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1tc06136d
  126. S.-U. Kim, Y.-J. Lee, J. Liu, D.S. Kim, H. Wang et al., Broadband and pixelated camouflage in inflating chiral nematic liquid crystalline elastomers. Nat. Mater. 21(1), 41–46 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-021-01075-3
  127. Y. Wang, Y. Liu, Z. Wang, D.H. Nguyen, C. Zhang et al., Polymerization-driven self-wrinkling on a frozen hydrogel surface toward ultra-stretchable polypyrrole-based supercapacitors. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(40), 45910–45920 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c13829
  128. Y. Liu, R. Bi, X. Zhang, Y. Chen, C. Valenzuela et al., Cephalopod-inspired MXene-integrated mechanochromic cholesteric liquid crystal elastomers for visible-infrared-radar multispectral camouflage. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64(12), e202422636 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202422636
  129. J. Ma, Y. Yang, C. Valenzuela, X. Zhang, L. Wang et al., Mechanochromic, shape-programmable and self-healable cholesteric liquid crystal elastomers enabled by dynamic covalent boronic ester bonds. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61(9), e202116219 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202116219
  130. S. Nam, D. Wang, C. Kwon, S.H. Han, S.S. Choi, Biomimetic multicolor-separating photonic skin using electrically stretchable chiral photonic elastomers. Adv. Mater. 35(31), e2302456 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202302456
  131. B. Jiang, L. Liu, Z. Gao, W. Wang, A general and robust strategy for fabricating mechanoresponsive surface wrinkles with dynamic switchable transmittance. Adv. Opt. Mater. 6(13), 1800195 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.201800195
  132. Y. Deng, Y. Yang, Y. Xiao, H.-L. Xie, R. Lan et al., Ultrafast switchable passive radiative cooling smart windows with synergistic optical modulation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(35), 2301319 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202301319
  133. J. Teyssier, S.V. Saenko, D. van der Marel, M.C. Milinkovitch, Photonic crystals cause active colour change in chameleons. Nat. Commun. 6, 6368 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7368
  134. N. Guo, C. Shi, B.W. Sheldon, H. Yan, M. Chen, A mechanical–optical coupling design on solar and thermal radiation modulation for thermoregulation. J. Mater. Chem. A 12(28), 17520–17528 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ta03388d
  135. E.M. Leung, M. Colorado Escobar, G.T. Stiubianu, S.R. Jim, A.L. Vyatskikh et al., A dynamic thermoregulatory material inspired by squid skin. Nat. Commun. 10, 1947 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09589-w
  136. Y. Peng, H.K. Lee, D.S. Wu, Y. Cui, Bifunctional asymmetric fabric with tailored thermal conduction and radiation for personal cooling and warming. Engineering 10, 167–173 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2021.04.016
  137. M. Yang, Y. Zeng, Q. Du, H. Sun, Y. Yin et al., Enhanced radiative cooling with Janus optical properties for low-temperature space cooling. Nanophotonics 13(5), 629–637 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0641
  138. B. Dai, X. Li, T. Xu, X. Zhang, Radiative cooling and solar heating Janus films for personal thermal management. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(16), 18877–18883 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c01370
  139. W. Yang, P. Xiao, S. Li, F. Deng, F. Ni et al., Engineering structural Janus MXene-nanofibrils aerogels for season-adaptive radiative thermal regulation. Small 19(30), e2302509 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202302509
  140. Z.-W. Zeng, B. Tang, F.-R. Zeng, H. Chen, S.-Q. Chen et al., An intelligent, recyclable, biomass film for adaptive day-night and year-round energy savings. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(39), 2403061 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202403061
  141. S. Tao, J. Han, Y. Xu, Z. Fang, Y. Ni et al., Mechanically switchable multifunctional device for regulating passive radiative cooling and solar heating. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(13), 17123–17133 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c21961
  142. Z. Xia, Z. Fang, Z. Zhang, K. Shi, Z. Meng, Easy way to achieve self-adaptive cooling of passive radiative materials. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(24), 27241–27248 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c05803
  143. Z. Yang, Y. Jia, J. Zhang, Hierarchical-morphology metal/polymer heterostructure for scalable multimodal thermal management. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(21), 24755–24765 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c03513
  144. C. Xiao, B. Liao, E.W. Hawkes, Passively adaptive radiative switch for thermoregulation in buildings. Device 2(1), 100186 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.device.2023.100186
  145. P.-C. Hsu, C. Liu, A.Y. Song, Z. Zhang, Y. Peng et al., A dual-mode textile for human body radiative heating and cooling. Sci. Adv. 3(11), e1700895 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700895
  146. M. Shi, Z. Song, J. Ni, X. Du, Y. Cao et al., Dual-mode porous polymeric films with coral-like hierarchical structure for all-day radiative cooling and heating. ACS Nano 17(3), 2029–2038 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c07293
  147. X. Li, B. Sun, C. Sui, A. Nandi, H. Fang et al., Integration of daytime radiative cooling and solar heating for year-round energy saving in buildings. Nat. Commun. 11(1), 6101 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19790-x
  148. N. Guo, C. Shi, N. Warren, E.A. Sprague-Klein, B.W. Sheldon et al., Challenges and opportunities for passive thermoregulation. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(34), 2401776 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202401776
  149. J. Li, G. Li, X. Lu, S. Wang, M. Leng et al., Magnetically responsive optical modulation: from anisotropic nanostructures to emerging applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(3), 2308293 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202308293
  150. J. Li, X. Lu, Y. Zhang, F. Cheng, Y. Li et al., Transmittance tunable smart window based on magnetically responsive 1D nanochains. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(28), 31637–31644 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c08402
  151. W. Luo, Q. Cui, K. Fang, K. Chen, H. Ma et al., Responsive hydrogel-based photonic nanochains for microenvironment sensing and imaging in real time and high resolution. Nano Lett. 20(2), 803–811 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b04218
  152. B.P.V. Heiz, Z. Pan, L. Su, S.T. Le, L. Wondraczek, A large-area smart window with tunable shading and solar-thermal harvesting ability based on remote switching of a magneto-active liquid. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 2(1), 1700140 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.201700140
  153. R. Zhang, Z. Song, W. Cao, G. Gao, L. Yang et al., Multispectral smart window: dynamic light modulation and electromagnetic microwave shielding. Light Sci. Appl. 13(1), 223 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-024-01541-y
  154. Y. Li, Y. Chen, J. Zhang, Y. Wang, H. Li et al., Dual electric/magnetic field-modulated nematic liquid crystal smart window based on the supramolecular doping effect of halloysite nanotube directors. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 6(6), 4532–4543 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.3c00016
  155. M. Wang, L. He, S. Zorba, Y. Yin, Magnetically actuated liquid crystals. Nano Lett. 14(7), 3966–3971 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl501302s
  156. Z. Huang, T. Lan, L. Dai, X. Zhao, Z. Wang et al., 2D functional minerals as sustainable materials for magneto-optics. Adv. Mater. 34(16), 2110464 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202110464
  157. P. Lei, J. Wang, Y. Gao, C. Hu, S. Zhang et al., An electrochromic nickel phosphate film for large-area smart window with ultra-large optical modulation. Nano-Micro Lett. 15(1), 34 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-022-01002-4
  158. Y. Zhao, D. Fan, Q. Li, Deformable manganite perovskite-based resonator with adaptively modulating infrared radiation. Appl. Mater. Today 21, 100808 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2020.100808
  159. X. Si, H. Zhu, Z. Yang, H. Wei, B. Chen et al., Adaptive radiative cooling via spectral decoupling in bilayered polymer/VO2 NP nanocomposites. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 17(8), 12117–12124 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c20168
  160. X.P. Zhao, S.A. Mofid, T. Gao, G. Tan, B.P. Jelle et al., Durability-enhanced vanadium dioxide thermochromic film for smart windows. Mater. Today Phys. 13, 100205 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtphys.2020.100205
  161. C. Jiang, L. He, Q. Xuan, Y. Liao, J.-G. Dai et al., Phase-change VO2-based thermochromic smart windows. Light Sci. Appl. 13(1), 255 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-024-01560-9
  162. S. Bhupathi, S. Wang, G. Wang, Y. Long, Porous vanadium dioxide thin film-based Fabry-Perot cavity system for radiative cooling regulating thermochromic windows: experimental and simulation studies. Nanophotonics 13(5), 711–723 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0716
  163. X. Ao, B. Li, B. Zhao, M. Hu, H. Ren et al., Self-adaptive integration of photothermal and radiative cooling for continuous energy harvesting from the Sun and outer space. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 119(17), e2120557119 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120557119
  164. S. Taylor, Y. Yang, L. Wang, Vanadium dioxide based Fabry-Perot emitter for dynamic radiative cooling applications. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 197, 76–83 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2017.01.014
  165. A.S. Barker, H.W. Verleur, H.J. Guggenheim, Infrared optical properties of vanadium dioxide above and below the transition temperature. Phys. Rev. Lett. 17(26), 1286–1289 (1966). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.17.1286
  166. J. Li, K. Dong, T. Zhang, D. Tseng, C. Fang et al., Printable, emissivity-adaptive and albedo-optimized covering for year-round energy saving. Joule 7(11), 2552–2567 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.09.011
  167. Z. Wang, J. Liang, D. Lei, C. Jiang, Z. Yang et al., Temperature-adaptive smart windows with passive transmittance and radiative cooling regulation. Appl. Energy 369, 123619 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123619
  168. Y.M. Xie, X.P. Zhao, S.A. Mofid, J.Y. Tan, B.P. Jelle et al., Influence of shell materials on the optical performance of VO2 core–shell nanop–based thermochromic films. Mater. Today Nano 13, 100102 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtnano.2020.100102
  169. X. Wu, L. Yuan, X. Weng, L. Qi, B. Wei et al., Passive smart thermal control coatings incorporating CaF(2)/VO(2) core-shell microsphere structures. Nano Lett. 21(9), 3908–3914 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c00454
  170. L. Yao, Z. Qu, Z. Pang, J. Li, S. Tang et al., Three-layered hollow nanospheres based coatings with ultrahigh-performance of energy-saving, antireflection, and self-cleaning for smart windows. Small 14(34), 1801661 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201801661
  171. Y. Peng, L. Fan, W. Jin, Y. Ye, Z. Huang et al., Coloured low-emissivity films for building envelopes for year-round energy savings. Nat. Sustain. 5(4), 339–347 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00836-x
  172. B. Xie, Y. Liu, W. Xi, R. Hu, Colored radiative cooling: progress and prospects. Mater. Today Energy 34, 101302 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2023.101302
  173. B.-Y. Liu, J. Wu, C.-H. Xue, Y. Zeng, J. Liang et al., Bioinspired superhydrophobic all-In-one coating for adaptive thermoregulation. Adv. Mater. 36(31), e2400745 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202400745
  174. J. Wang, M. Xie, Y. An, Y. Tao, J. Sun et al., All-season thermal regulation with thermochromic temperature-adaptive radiative cooling coatings. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 246, 111883 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111883
  175. Y. Chen, J. Mandal, W. Li, A. Smith-Washington, C.-C. Tsai et al., Colored and paintable bilayer coatings with high solar-infrared reflectance for efficient cooling. Sci. Adv. 6(17), eaaz5413 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz5413
  176. T. Wang, Y. Liu, Y. Dong, X. Yin, D. Lei et al., Colored radiative cooling: from photonic approaches to fluorescent colors and beyond. Adv. Mater. 37(15), 2414300 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202414300
  177. Y. Dong, W. Meng, F. Wang, H. Han, H. Liang et al., “Warm in winter and cool in summer”: scalable biochameleon inspired temperature-adaptive coating with easy preparation and construction. Nano Lett. 23(19), 9034–9041 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c02733
  178. T. Wang, Y. Zhang, M. Chen, M. Gu, L. Wu, Scalable and waterborne titanium-dioxide-free thermochromic coatings for self-adaptive passive radiative cooling and heating. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3(3), 100782 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2022.100782
  179. Y. Yin, P. Sun, Y. Zeng, M. Yang, S. Gao et al., A colored temperature-adaptive cloak for year-round building energy saving. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(37), 2402202 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202402202
  180. S. Son, D. Chae, H. Lim, J. Ha, J. Park et al., Temperature-sensitive colored radiative cooling materials with efficient cooling performance. Adv. Eng. Mater. 25(6), 2201254 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202201254
  181. S. Yu, Q. Zhang, L. Liu, R. Ma, Thermochromic conductive fibers with modifiable solar absorption for personal thermal management and temperature visualization. ACS Nano 17(20), 20299–20307 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.3c06289
  182. Y. Zhou, S. Wang, J. Peng, Y. Tan, C. Li et al., Liquid thermo-responsive smart window derived from hydrogel. Joule 4(11), 2458–2474 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.09.001
  183. X. Mei, T. Wang, M. Chen, L. Wu, A self-adaptive film for passive radiative cooling and solar heating regulation. J. Mater. Chem. A 10(20), 11092–11100 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ta01291j
  184. B. Zhao, K. Lu, W. Zhang, C. Jin, Q. Xuan et al., Thermo-responsive hydrogel-based building envelopes for building energy-saving. Sol. Energy 288, 113306 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2025.113306
  185. Z. Fang, L. Ding, L. Li, K. Shuai, B. Cao et al., Thermal homeostasis enabled by dynamically regulating the passive radiative cooling and solar heating based on a thermochromic hydrogel. ACS Photonics 8(9), 2781–2790 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsphotonics.1c00967
  186. S. Wang, Y. Zhou, T. Jiang, R. Yang, G. Tan et al., Thermochromic smart windows with highly regulated radiative cooling and solar transmission. Nano Energy 89, 106440 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106440
  187. W. Su, R. Kang, P. Cai, M. Hu, G. Kokogiannakis et al., Development of spectrally self-switchable cover with phase change material for dynamic radiative cooling. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 251, 112125 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.112125
  188. A. Leroy, B. Bhatia, C.C. Kelsall, A. Castillejo-Cuberos, M. Di Capua H et al., High-performance subambient radiative cooling enabled by optically selective and thermally insulating polyethylene aerogel. Sci. Adv. 5(10), eaat9480 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat9480
  189. M. Lian, S. Liu, W. Ding, Y. Wang, T. Zhu et al., A mechanically robust and optically transparent nanofiber-aerogel-reinforcing polymeric nanocomposite for passive cooling window. Chem. Eng. J. 498, 154973 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.154973
  190. F. Wang, G. Zhang, X. Shi, Y. Dong, Y. Xun et al., Biomimetically calabash-inspired phase change material capsule: experimental and numerical analysis on thermal performance and flow characteristics. J. Energy Storage 52, 104859 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.104859
  191. S. Wang, M. Wu, H. Han, R. Du, Z. Zhao et al., Regulating cold energy from the universe by bifunctional phase change materials for sustainable cooling. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(45), 2402667 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202402667
  192. S. Tao, Q. Wan, Y. Xu, D. Gao, Z. Fang et al., Incorporation form-stable phase change material with passive radiative cooling emitter for thermal regulation. Energy Build. 288, 113031 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113031
  193. J. Wang, X. Shan, P. Hu, C. Zhang, D. Yuan et al., Bioinspired multilayer structures for energy-free passive heating and thermal regulation in cold environments. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(41), 46569–46580 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c12610
  194. P. Li, Y. Wang, X. He, Y. Cui, J. Ouyang et al., Wearable and interactive multicolored photochromic fiber display. Light Sci. Appl. 13(1), 48 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-024-01383-8
  195. J. Li, Y. Jiang, J. Liu, L. Wu, N. Xu et al., A photosynthetically active radiative cooling film. Nat. Sustain. 7(6), 786–795 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-024-01350-6
  196. Q. Hao, W. Li, H. Xu, J. Wang, Y. Yin et al., VO2/TiN plasmonic thermochromic smart coatings for room-temperature applications. Adv. Mater. 30(10), 1705421 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201705421
  197. R. Liu, J. Li, J. Duan, B. Yu, W. Xie et al., High-efficiency solar heat storage enabled by adaptive radiation management. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 2(8), 100533 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100533
  198. L. Shen, R. Lou, Y. Park, Y. Guo, E.J. Stallknecht et al., Increasing greenhouse production by spectral-shifting and unidirectional light-extracting photonics. Nat. Food 2(6), 434–441 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00307-8
  199. J. Xu, R. Wan, W. Xu, Z. Ma, X. Cheng et al., Colored radiative cooling coatings using phosphor dyes. Mater. Today Nano 19, 100239 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtnano.2022.100239
  200. X. Xue, M. Qiu, Y. Li, Q.M. Zhang, S. Li et al., Creating an eco-friendly building coating with smart subambient radiative cooling. Adv. Mater. 32(42), e1906751 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201906751
  201. X. Wang, Q. Zhang, S. Wang, C. Jin, B. Zhu et al., Sub-ambient full-color passive radiative cooling under sunlight based on efficient quantum-dot photoluminescence. Sci. Bull. 67(18), 1874–1881 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2022.08.028
  202. J.-W. Ma, F.-R. Zeng, X.-C. Lin, Y.-Q. Wang, Y.-H. Ma et al., A photoluminescent hydrogen-bonded biomass aerogel for sustainable radiative cooling. Science 385(6704), 68–74 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adn5694
  203. T. Wang, X. Wu, Q. Zhu, Y. Chen, S. Zhang et al., A scalable and durable polydimethylsiloxane-coated nanoporous polyethylene textile for daytime radiative cooling. Nanophotonics 13(5), 601–609 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0596
  204. X. Zhang, Z. Cheng, D. Yang, Y. Dong, X. Shi et al., Scalable bio-skin-inspired radiative cooling metafabric for breaking trade-off between optical properties and application requirements. ACS Photonics 10(5), 1624–1632 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsphotonics.3c00241
  205. X. Zhang, J. Du, F. Wang, Z. Xu, X. Li et al., Hierarchical pore structure with a confined resonant mode for improving the solar energy utilizing efficiency of ultra-thin perovskite solar cells. Opt. Express 32(10), 17197–17210 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.523065
  206. Z. Huang, X. Ruan, Nanop embedded double-layer coating for daytime radiative cooling. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 104, 890–896 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.08.009
  207. R.H. Galib, Y. Tian, Y. Lei, S. Dang, X. Li et al., Atmospheric-moisture-induced polyacrylate hydrogels for hybrid passive cooling. Nat. Commun. 14(1), 6707 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-42548-0
  208. D. Hong, Y.J. Lee, O.S. Jeon, I.-S. Lee, S.H. Lee et al., Humidity-tolerant porous polymer coating for passive daytime radiative cooling. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 4457 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48621-6
  209. C. Zhang, J. Yang, Y. Li, J. Song, J. Guo et al., Vapor–liquid transition-based broadband light modulation for self-adaptive thermal management. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(48), 2208144 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202208144
  210. J. Fei, D. Han, J. Ge, X. Wang, S.W. Koh et al., Switchable surface coating for bifunctional passive radiative cooling and solar heating. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(27), 2203582 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202203582
  211. J. Mandal, M. Jia, A. Overvig, Y. Fu, E. Che et al., Porous polymers with switchable optical transmittance for optical and thermal regulation. Joule 3(12), 3088–3099 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.09.016
  212. S. Shi, P. Lv, C. Valenzuela, B. Li, Y. Liu et al., Scalable bacterial cellulose-based radiative cooling materials with switchable transparency for thermal management and enhanced solar energy harvesting. Small 19(39), 2301957 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202301957
  213. N. Guo, L. Yu, C. Shi, H. Yan, M. Chen, A facile and effective design for dynamic thermal management based on synchronous solar and thermal radiation regulation. Nano Lett. 24(4), 1447–1453 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c04996
  214. N. Guo, Z. Zhao, H. Yan, M. Chen, Dynamic thermal radiation regulation for thermal management. Next Energy 1(4), 100072 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxener.2023.100072
  215. X. Li, M. Liu, K. Chen, L. Li, G. Pei et al., Adaptive fabric with emissivity regulation for thermal management of humans. Nanophotonics 13(17), 3067–3075 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0930
  216. H. Zhang, J. Huang, D. Fan, Switchable radiative cooling from temperature-responsive thermal resistance modulation. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 5(5), 6003–6010 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.2c00421
  217. M.G. Abebe, G. Rosolen, E. Khousakoun, J. Odent, J.-M. Raquez et al., Dynamic thermal-regulating textiles with metallic fibers based on a switchable transmittance. Phys. Rev. Appl. 14(4), 044030 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevapplied.14.044030
  218. X. Jiang, X. Li, H. Zhang, Z. Hu, S. Jia et al., Sweat-sensitive adaptive warm clothing. Sci. Adv. 11(33), eadu3472 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu3472
  219. X. Jiang, Z. Wang, S. Jia, G. Li, Y. Xu et al., Super stable moisture-responsive actuator via covalent crosslinking for efficient personal thermal management. Adv. Mater. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202507267
  220. Y. Zhong, F. Zhang, M. Wang, C.J. Gardner, G. Kim et al., Reversible humidity sensitive clothing for personal thermoregulation. Sci. Rep. 7, 44208 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep44208
  221. X. Li, B. Ma, J. Dai, C. Sui, D. Pande et al., Metalized polyamide heterostructure as a moisture-responsive actuator for multimodal adaptive personal heat management. Sci. Adv. 7(51), eabj7906 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abj7906
  222. H. Zhao, X. Qi, Y. Ma, X. Sun, X. Liu et al., Wearable sunlight-triggered bimorph textile actuators. Nano Lett. 21(19), 8126–8134 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c02578
  223. X.A. Zhang, S. Yu, B. Xu, M. Li, Z. Peng et al., Dynamic gating of infrared radiation in a textile. Science 363(6427), 619–623 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau1217
  224. K. Fu, Z. Yang, Y. Pei, Y. Wang, B. Xu et al., Designing textile architectures for high energy-efficiency human body sweat- and cooling-management. Adv. Fiber Mater. 1(1), 61–70 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42765-019-0003-y
  225. Y. Du, Y. Chen, X. Yang, J. Liu, Y. Liang et al., Hybrid passive cooling: towards the next breakthrough of radiative sky cooling technology. J. Mater. Chem. A 12(33), 21490–21514 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ta03122a
  226. R. Zhang, N. Sun, Z. Zhao, S. Wang, M. Zhang et al., Bionic dual-scale structured films for efficient passive radiative cooling accompanied by robust durability. Nanoscale Horiz. 9(8), 1354–1363 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4nh00136b
  227. Y. Jiao, Z. Li, C. Li, C. Cao, A. Huang et al., Flexible tri-state-regulated thermochromic smart window based on WxV1-xO2/paraffin/PVA composite film. Chem. Eng. J. 497, 154578 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.154578
  228. H. Liang, X. Zhang, F. Wang, C. Li, W. Yuan et al., Bio-inspired micropatterned thermochromic hydrogel for concurrent smart solar transmission and rapid visible-light stealth at all-working temperatures. Light Sci. Appl. 13(1), 202 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-024-01525-y
  229. C. Lin, J. Hur, C.Y.H. Chao, G. Liu, S. Yao et al., All-weather thermochromic windows for synchronous solar and thermal radiation regulation. Sci. Adv. 8(17), eabn7359 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn7359
  230. Y. Ding, C. Zhong, F. Yang, Z. Kang, B. Li et al., Low energy consumption thermochromic smart windows with flexibly regulated photothermal gain and radiation cooling. Appl. Energy 348, 121598 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121598
  231. Y. Ke, Y. Li, L. Wu, S. Wang, R. Yang et al., On-demand solar and thermal radiation management based on switchable interwoven surfaces. ACS Energy Lett. 7(5), 1758–1763 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.2c00419
  232. S. Wang, Y. Dong, Y. Li, K. Ryu, Z. Dong et al., A solar/radiative cooling dual-regulation smart window based on shape-morphing kirigami structures. Mater. Horiz. 10(10), 4243–4250 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3mh00671a
  233. W. Wang, Z. Zhao, Q. Zou, B. Hong, W. Zhang et al., Self-adaptive radiative cooling and solar heating based on a compound metasurface. J. Mater. Chem. C 8(9), 3192–3199 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/c9tc05634c
  234. Q. Zhang, Y. Lv, Y. Wang, S. Yu, C. Li et al., Temperature-dependent dual-mode thermal management device with net zero energy for year-round energy saving. Nat. Commun. 13(1), 4874 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-32528-1
  235. Q. Zhang, Y. Wang, Y. Lv, S. Yu, R. Ma, Bioinspired zero-energy thermal-management device based on visible and infrared thermochromism for all-season energy saving. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 119(38), e2207353119 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207353119
  236. Z. Shao, A. Huang, C. Cao, X. Ji, W. Hu et al., Tri-band electrochromic smart window for energy savings in buildings. Nat. Sustain. 7(6), 796–803 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-024-01349-z
  237. Z. Zhang, M. Yu, C. Ma, L. He, X. He et al., A Janus smart window for temperature-adaptive radiative cooling and adjustable solar transmittance. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 233 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01740-1
  238. Y. Jiang, Y. Wang, D. Kong, Z. Chen, Z. Yang et al., A highly visible-transparent thermochromic smart window with broadband infrared modulation for all-season energy savings. Natl. Sci. Rev. 12(2), nwae408 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwae408
  239. Y. Wang, S. Liu, X. Zhang, Y. Liu, T. Zhu et al., Thermal-rectified gradient porous nanocomposite film enabling multiscenario adaptive radiative cooling. ACS Nano 19(20), 19328–19339 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5c02609
  240. C. Xiao, M. Liu, K. Yao, Y. Zhang, M. Zhang et al., Ultrabroadband and band-selective thermal meta-emitters by machine learning. Nature 643(8070), 80–88 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09102-y
  241. X. Zhao, T. Li, H. Xie, H. Liu, L. Wang et al., A solution-processed radiative cooling glass. Science 382(6671), 684–691 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adi2224
  242. C. Lin, K. Li, M. Li, B. Dopphoopha, J. Zheng et al., Pushing radiative cooling technology to real applications. Adv. Mater. 37(23), 2409738 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202409738
  243. S. Jia, M. Huang, X. Jiang, C. Shen, S. Chen et al., Tandem daytime radiative cooling and solar power generation. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 6(1), 102343 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2024.102343
  244. S. Chen, K. Lin, S. Liu, C.T. Kwok, L. Liang et al., Bioinspired metafilms for all-weather energy harvesting: adaptive thermal regulation and raindrop electricity generation. Sci. Adv. 11(21), eadu2895 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu2895
  245. K. Yang, X. Wu, L. Zhou, P. Wu, I. Gereige et al., Towards practical applications of radiative cooling. Nat. Rev. Clean Technol. 1(4), 235–254 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-025-00041-5
  246. J. Song, Q. Shen, H. Shao, X. Deng, Anti-environmental aging passive daytime radiative cooling. Adv. Sci. 11(10), 2305664 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202305664
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF

Most read articles by the same author(s)