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Vol. 19 (2027)

Calendar Aging Triggers Critical Performance Degradation of Lithium Primary Batteries

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02354-x
Mengjie Li
Shanghai Electrochemical Energy Devices Research Center, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China
Shuzhi Zhao
College of Smart Energy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China
Fei Wei
Shanghai Electrochemical Energy Devices Research Center, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China
Wen Jia
Shanghai Electrochemical Energy Devices Research Center, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China
Zi‑Feng Ma
Shanghai Electrochemical Energy Devices Research Center, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Zi‑Feng Ma

zfma@sjtu.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 19 (2027), Article Number: 57

Abstract

Lithium primary cells have garnered significant attention owing to long storage life and high safety. However, the capacity degradation law derived from accelerated aging methods is not universally applicable to all operating conditions; thus, lifetime evaluation under calendar aging poses substantial challenges while holding remarkable significance. Herein, comprehensive characterizations were conducted on lithium primary cells subjected to 10-year calendar aging, which aimed to gain a holistic understanding of the degradation mechanism. The results reveal that the surface of the postmortem electrode is covered by complex interfacial species, which exhibit a dual role: They contribute to the low self-discharge rate of cells, and paradoxically, the further deposition of these species at the interfaces between active materials and conductive agents significantly increases the interfacial impedance of electrode, thereby deteriorating the C-rate performance of the cells. This work provides novel insights for the design and development of lithium primary cells.


Highlights:
1 Cell data from a decade of calendar aging were investigated.
2 The high C-rate performance of the cell is severely attenuated after calendar aging.
3 The interface between electrode and electrolyte was analyzed.
4 The type of ion fragment points to the serious degradation of the electrolyte system.

Keywords

Lithium primary cells Calendar aging Performance degradation Interfaces evolution
Li, Mengjie, Shuzhi Zhao, Fei Wei, Wen Jia, and Zi‑Feng Ma. 2026. “Calendar Aging Triggers Critical Performance Degradation of Lithium Primary Batteries”. Nano-Micro Letters 19 (November):57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02354-x.
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