Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Electric-Field-Driven Generative Nanoimprinting for Tilted Metasurface Nanostructures

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01857-3
Yu Fan
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China
Chunhui Wang
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China
Hongmiao Tian
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China
Xiaoming Chen
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China
Ben Q. Li
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China
Zhaomin Wang
Mojie Technology Co., Ltd, Zhuhai 519000, People’s Republic of China
Xiangming Li
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China
Xiaoliang Chen
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China
Jinyou Shao
Micro‑ and Nano‑Technology Research Center, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Jinyou Shao

jyshao@xjtu.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 12

Abstract

Tilted metasurface nanostructures, with excellent physical properties and enormous application potential, pose an urgent need for manufacturing methods. Here, electric-field-driven generative-nanoimprinting technique is proposed. The electric field applied between the template and the substrate drives the contact, tilting, filling, and holding processes. By accurately controlling the introduced included angle between the flexible template and the substrate, tilted nanostructures with a controllable angle are imprinted onto the substrate, although they are vertical on the template. By flexibly adjusting the electric field intensity and the included angle, large-area uniform-tilted, gradient-tilted, and high-angle-tilted nanostructures are fabricated. In contrast to traditional replication, the morphology of the nanoimprinting structure is extended to customized control. This work provides a cost-effective, efficient, and versatile technology for the fabrication of various large-area tilted metasurface structures. As an illustration, a tilted nanograting with a high coupling efficiency is fabricated and integrated into augmented reality displays, demonstrating superior imaging quality.


Highlights:
1 The developed electric-field-driven generative-nanoimprinting technology enables direct fabrication of large-area tilted metasurface nanostructures with cost-efficiency and high-throughput advantages.
2 Real-time tuning of process parameters facilitates customized fabrication of various tilted metasurface nanostructures.
3 Integration of these custom-designed high-angle-tilted nanostructures into augmented reality displays achieves superior image quality.

Keywords

Generative nanoimprinting Electric field assistance Tilted metasurface structures Large-area fabrication
Fan, Yu, Chunhui Wang, Hongmiao Tian, Xiaoming Chen, Ben Q. Li, Zhaomin Wang, Xiangming Li, Xiaoliang Chen, and Jinyou Shao. 2025. “Electric-Field-Driven Generative Nanoimprinting for Tilted Metasurface Nanostructures”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (July):12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01857-3.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. A.R. Parker, H.E. Townley, Biomimetics of photonic nanostructures. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2(6), 347–353 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2007.152
  2. Q. Guo, S. Zhang, J. Zhang, C.P. Chen, Design of single-layer color echelle grating optical waveguide for augmented-reality display. Opt. Express 31(3), 3954–3969 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.478490
  3. H. Chen, P. Wang, X. Wang, X. Wang, L. Rao et al., 3D InGaN nanowire arrays on oblique pyramid-textured Si (311) for light trapping and solar water splitting enhancement. Nano Energy 83, 105768 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.105768
  4. J. He, B. Tao, R. Zhao, X. Chen, K. Yang et al., Light-induced transverse thermoelectric effect in MOCVD-deposited La1−xSrxMnO3 (0.08 ≤ x ≤ 0.7) thin films with inclined structure. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 35(6), 379 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-024-12150-1
  5. M. Li, X. Wang, Beating the size-dependent limit with spin-lattice coupling in nanomagnetism. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147(2), 1732–1739 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.4c12978
  6. K.-I. Uchida, T. Hirai, F. Ando, H. Sepehri-Amin, Hybrid transverse magneto-thermoelectric cooling in artificially tilted multilayers. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(3), 2302375 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202302375
  7. Y. Cai, Z. Zhao, J. Chen, T. Yang, P.S. Cremer, Deflected capillary force lithography. ACS Nano 6(2), 1548–1556 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/nn2045278
  8. Y. Sekiguchi, K. Takahashi, C. Sato, Adhesion mechanism of a gecko-inspired oblique structure with an adhesive tip for asymmetric detachment. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 48(47), 475301 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/48/47/475301
  9. Z. Wang, J. Liu, D. Hui, Mechanical behaviors of inclined cell honeycomb structure subjected to compression. Compos. Part B Eng. 110, 307–314 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.10.062
  10. Y. Chen, H. Deng, X. Sha, W. Chen, R. Wang et al., Observation of intrinsic chiral bound states in the continuum. Nature 613(7944), 474–478 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05467-6
  11. H. Qin, Z. Su, Z. Zhang, W. Lv, Z. Yang et al., Disorder-assisted real-momentum topological photonic crystal. Nature 639(8055), 602–608 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08632-9
  12. X. Guo, Q. Song, S. Ma, J. Wang, G. Ma et al., Design and fabrication of polygonal grating waveguide display with full-color 2D eye-box expansion. Opt. Lasers Eng. 180, 108311 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2024.108311
  13. M. Chen, X. Chen, Q. Wang, X. Ning, Z. Li et al., Ultra-broadband light detection based on the light-induced transverse thermoelectric effect of epitaxial PbSe thin films with inclined structure. Appl. Phys. Lett. 120(17), 173505 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0088584
  14. J. Mendoza-Carreño, S. Bertucci, M. Garbarino, M. Cirignano, S. Fiorito et al., A single nanophotonic platform for producing circularly polarized white light from non-chiral emitters. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 10443 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54792-z
  15. Y. Luo, X. Chen, H. Tian, X. Li, Y. Lu et al., Gecko-inspired slant hierarchical microstructure-based ultrasensitive iontronic pressure sensor for intelligent interaction. Research 2022, 9852138 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3413/2022/9852138
  16. C. Su, X. Liu, Y. You, Y. Ma, T. Geng, Highly sensitive magnetostrictive sensor with well-sealed and sensitivity tunability. Opt. Fiber Technol. 84, 103737 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yofte.2024.103737
  17. J. Albert, L.-Y. Shao, C. Caucheteur, Tilted fiber Bragg grating sensors. Laser Photon. Rev. 7(1), 83–108 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/lpor.201100039
  18. B.C. Kress, Optical waveguide combiners for AR headsets: features and limitations. Digital Optical Technologies 2019. June 24–27, 2019. Munich, Germany. SPIE, (2019). 17. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2527680
  19. G.-Y. Lee, J.-Y. Hong, S. Hwang, S. Moon, H. Kang et al., Metasurface eyepiece for augmented reality. Nat. Commun. 9, 4562 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07011-5
  20. T.I. Jeong, S. Kim, S. Kim, M. Shin, A. Gliserin et al., Three-dimensional surface lattice plasmon resonance effect from plasmonic inclined nanostructures via one-step stencil lithography. Nanophotonics 13(7), 1169–1180 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2023-0755
  21. Z. Cao, L. Liu, J. Tian, X. Zhangyang, Z. Wang et al., Enhanced photoemission performance of InGaN inclined nanowire array. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(30), 39818–39826 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c06932
  22. L. Liu, F. Lu, J. Tian, X. Zhangyang, Enhancement of electron collection and light trapping of inclined GaN and AlGaN nanowire arrays. Energy Technol. 9(2), 2000801 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.202000801
  23. C. Li, H. Ren, Beyond the lab: a nanoimprint metalens array-based augmented reality. Light Sci. Appl. 13(1), 102 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-024-01429-x
  24. J. Xiong, E.-L. Hsiang, Z. He, T. Zhan, S.-T. Wu, Augmented reality and virtual reality displays: emerging technologies and future perspectives. Light Sci. Appl. 10(1), 216 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-021-00658-8
  25. T. Zhan, K. Yin, J. Xiong, Z. He, S.-T. Wu, Augmented reality and virtual reality displays: perspectives and challenges. iScience 23(8), 101397 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101397
  26. Z. Tian, X. Zhu, P.A. Surman, Z. Chen, X.W. Sun, An achromatic metasurface waveguide for augmented reality displays. Light Sci. Appl. 14(1), 94 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-025-01761-w
  27. C. Jang, K. Bang, M. Chae, B. Lee, D. Lanman, Waveguide holography for 3D augmented reality glasses. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 66 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44032-1
  28. C. Gu, G. Yang, W. Wang, A. Shi, W. Fang et al., Direct photolithography of WOx nanops for high-resolution non-emissive displays. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 67 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01563-6
  29. Y. Yin, B. Liu, Y. Han, Q. Liu, J. Kou et al., Nanoscale 3D printing for empowering future nanodevices. Adv. Mater. Technol., 2500083 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202500083
  30. B. Chang, Oblique angled plasma etching for 3D silicon structures with wiggling geometries. Nanotechnology 31(8), 085301 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/ab53fb
  31. K. Kim, K. Park, H. Nam, G.H. Kim, S.K. Hong et al., Fabrication of oblique submicron-scale structures using synchrotron hard X-ray lithography. Polymers 13(7), 1045 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13071045
  32. N. Mojarad, D. Kazazis, Y. Ekinci (2021). Fabrication of high aspect ratio and tilted nanostructures using extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray interference lithography. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. Microelectron. Nanometer Struct. Process. Meas. Phenom. 39(4): 042601. https://doi.org/10.1116/6.0001089
  33. S. Takahashi, K. Suzuki, M. Okano, M. Imada, T. Nakamori et al., Direct creation of three-dimensional photonic crystals by a top-down approach. Nat. Mater. 8(9), 721–725 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2507
  34. Z. Chen, Q. Yu, K. Shimada, P. Liu, Y. He et al., High-precision and high-efficiency fabrication of blazed grating by ultrasonic-assisted ultraprecision planing. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 311, 117802 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2022.117802
  35. X. Mi, S. Zhang, X. Qi, H. Yu, H. Yu et al., Ruling engine using adjustable diamond and interferometric control for high-quality gratings and large echelles. Opt. Express 27(14), 19448–19462 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.27.019448
  36. T. Burzynski, M. Papini, A level set methodology for predicting the surface evolution of inclined masked micro-channels resulting from abrasive jet micro-machining at oblique incidence. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf 51(7–8), 628–641 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2011.03.003
  37. M. Roeder, S. Thiele, D. Hera, C. Pruss, T. Guenther et al., Fabrication of curved diffractive optical elements by means of laser direct writing, electroplating, and injection compression molding. J. Manuf. Process. 47, 402–409 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.10.012
  38. C. Shen, X. Tan, Q. Jiao, W. Zhang, N. Wu et al., Convex blazed grating of high diffraction efficiency fabricated by swing ion-beam etching method. Opt. Express 26(19), 25381–25398 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.26.025381
  39. F. Li, K. Wang, N. Deng, J. Xu, M. Yi et al., Self-assembly of polymer end-tethered gold nanorods into two-dimensional arrays with tunable tilt structures. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(5), 6566–6574 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c22468
  40. R. Fu, K. Chen, Z. Li, S. Yu, G. Zheng, Metasurface-based nanoprinting: principle, design and advances. Opto Electron. Sci. 1(10), 220011 (2022). https://doi.org/10.2902/oes.2022.220011
  41. J. Gong, L. Xiong, F. Zhang, M. Pu, M. Hong et al., Integrated quad-color nanoprinting and tri-channel holographic encryption meta-marks with printable metasurfaces. Laser Photon. Rev. 19(2), 2401045 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/lpor.202401045
  42. H. Kang, T. Tanaka, H. Duan, T. Cao, J. Rho, State-of-the-art micro- and nano-scale photonics research in Asia: devices, fabrication, manufacturing, and applications. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 10(1), 114 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-024-00736-y
  43. L. Yan, Z. Liu, J. Wang, L. Yu, Integrating hard silicon for high-performance soft electronics via geometry engineering. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 218 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01724-1
  44. Y. Wang, S. Jin, Q. Wang, M. Wu, S. Yao et al., Parallel nanoimprint forming of one-dimensional chiral semiconductor for strain-engineered optical properties. Nano-Micro Lett. 12(1), 160 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-020-00493-3
  45. J. Kim, W. Kim, M. Choi, Y. Park, D. Kang et al., Amorphous to crystalline transition in nanoimprinted sol-gel titanium oxide metasurfaces. Adv. Mater. 36(49), e2405378 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202405378
  46. C. Wang, Y. Fan, J. Shao, Z. Yang, J. Sun et al., Discretely-supported nanoimprint lithography for patterning the high-spatial-frequency stepped surface. Nano Res. 14(8), 2606–2612 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-020-3261-3
  47. S.Y. Chou, P.R. Krauss, P.J. Renstrom, Imprint lithography with 25-nanometer resolution. Science 272(5258), 85–87 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.272.5258.85
  48. S.-X. Li, G.-Y. Huang, H. Xia, T. Fu, X.-J. Wang et al., Nanoimprint crystalithography for organic semiconductors. Nat. Commun. 16(1), 3636 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-58934-9
  49. J. Kim, H. Kim, H. Kang, W. Kim, Y. Chen et al., A water-soluble label for food products prevents packaging waste and counterfeiting. Nat. Food 5(4), 293–300 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-024-00957-4
  50. C. Wang, J. Shao, H. Tian, X. Li, Y. Ding et al., Step-controllable electric-field-assisted nanoimprint lithography for uneven large-area substrates. ACS Nano 10(4), 4354–4363 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b08032
  51. J. Kim, J. Seong, W. Kim, G.-Y. Lee, S. Kim et al., Scalable manufacturing of high-index atomic layer-polymer hybrid metasurfaces for metaphotonics in the visible. Nat. Mater. 22(4), 474–481 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-023-01485-5
  52. A. Cherala, S.V. Sreenivasan, Molecular dynamics modeling framework for overcoming nanoshape retention limits of imprint lithography. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 4, 3 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-018-0007-4
  53. Y. Park, J. Kim, Y. Yang, D.K. Oh, H. Kang et al., Tape-assisted residual layer-free one-step nanoimprinting of high-index hybrid polymer for optical loss-suppressed metasurfaces. Adv. Sci. 12(10), 2409371 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202409371
  54. C. Wang, J. Shao, D. Lai, H. Tian, X. Li, Suspended-template electric-assisted nanoimprinting for hierarchical micro-nanostructures on a fragile substrate. ACS Nano 13(9), 10333–10342 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.9b04031
  55. J. Kim, W. Kim, D.K. Oh, H. Kang, H. Kim et al., One-step printable platform for high-efficiency metasurfaces down to the deep-ultraviolet region. Light Sci. Appl. 12(1), 68 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-023-01086-6
  56. L. Wen, R. Xu, Y. Mi, Y. Lei, Multiple nanostructures based on anodized aluminium oxide templates. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12(3), 244–250 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2016.257
  57. G. Yoon, K. Kim, D. Huh, H. Lee, J. Rho, Single-step manufacturing of hierarchical dielectric metalens in the visible. Nat. Commun. 11(1), 2268 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16136-5
  58. Y. Fan, C. Wang, J. Sun, X. Peng, H. Tian et al., Electric-driven flexible-roller nanoimprint lithography on the stress-sensitive warped wafer. Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 5(3), 035101 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/acd827
  59. M. Gopakumar, G.-Y. Lee, S. Choi, B. Chao, Y. Peng et al., Full-colour 3D holographic augmented-reality displays with metasurface waveguides. Nature 629(8013), 791–797 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07386-0
  60. Y. Ding, Y. Gu, Q. Yang, Z. Yang, Y. Huang et al., Breaking the in-coupling efficiency limit in waveguide-based AR displays with polarization volume gratings. Light Sci. Appl. 13(1), 185 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-024-01537-8
  61. S. Wang, P.C. Wu, V.-C. Su, Y.-C. Lai, M.-K. Chen et al., A broadband achromatic metalens in the visible. Nat. Nanotechnol. 13(3), 227–232 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-017-0052-4
  62. M. Choi, J. Kim, S. Moon, K. Shin, S.W. Nam et al., Roll-to-plate printable RGB achromatic metalens for wide-field-of-view holographic near-eye displays. Nat. Mater. 24(4), 535–543 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-025-02121-0
  63. J. Gong, L. Xiong, M. Pu, X. Li, X. Ma et al., Visible meta-displays for anti-counterfeiting with printable dielectric metasurfaces. Adv. Sci. 11(17), e2308687 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202308687
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF SUPPLEMENTARY FILE
Statistic
Read Counter : 131 Download : 99