Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Triboelectric Nanogenerators in Military: Recent Progress and Critical Challenges

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02221-9
Changcheng Bao
School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of China
Xiaoxia Ma
School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of China
Min He
School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of China
Li Yang
School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of China
Yingting Wang
The Institute of Precision Machinery and Smart Structure, College of Engineering, Zhejiang Normal University, Yingbin Street 688, Jinhua 321004, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Yingting Wang

wangyingting@zjnu.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 396

Abstract

The rapid evolution of modern warfare toward distributed, intelligent, and global stealth has posed severe energy supply and information perception bottlenecks for combat nodes. Traditional energy supply strategies are unable to meet the strategic needs of long-range stealth operations and extreme environmental survival. Triboelectric nanogenerators provide a disruptive path for constructing self-sustaining military microsystems with high-efficiency and zero-power-sensing characteristics. This review establishes a comprehensive framework that systematically evaluates recent technological advances across an escalating hierarchy, encompassing individual soldier combat platforms, unmanned combat systems, strategic aerospace equipment, and special tactical scenarios. Crucially, moving beyond generic laboratory demonstrations, this review adopts a rigorous defense engineering perspective by conducting an integrated failure mode analysis to evaluate device degradation under severe battlefield stressors. Furthermore, it critically analyzes the primary engineering bottlenecks currently hindering military adoption, such as inherent impedance mismatch and scalable manufacturing barriers, and proposes targeted mitigation strategies. To systematically validate these solutions, we explicitly propose a concise evaluation framework strictly aligned with established military testing protocols. Ultimately, this review outlines several forward-looking strategic priorities, thereby constructing a highly actionable roadmap to accelerate the practical deployment of self-driven intelligent technologies.


Highlights:
1 Recent advances of triboelectric nanogenerators are systematically reviewed across multiscale military platforms, including individual soldier systems, unmanned combat platforms, strategic equipment, and special tactical scenarios.
2 Core advantages of triboelectric nanogenerators in structural-functional integration, extreme environment robustness, and synergy of self-powered energy supply and sensing for military demands are highlighted.
3 Critical engineering bottlenecks are analyzed, and forward-looking directions (e.g., physical layer encryption, self-powered Internet of Military Things) are proposed to accelerate practical deployment.

Keywords

Triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) Military Self-powered sensing Energy harvesting
Bao, Changcheng, Xiaoxia Ma, Min He, Li Yang, and Yingting Wang. 2026. “Triboelectric Nanogenerators in Military: Recent Progress and Critical Challenges”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (June):396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02221-9.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. Q. Li, L. Cui, Q. Wang, A. Guo, H. Yuan, Construction and application of an agent-based intelligent operation and maintenance system for UAV. Drones 9(4), 309 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/drones9040309
  2. K. Jeon, Y.-S. Lee, B.C. Jung, H. Lee, Cooperative jamming for secure air–ground integrated networks: a hierarchical distributed deep reinforcement learning approach. IEEE Internet Things J. 12(24), 52607–52620 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2025.3615825
  3. Y. Bai, D. Kan, X. Wu, Z. Yang, Assessment of operational effectiveness based on stacking integrated learning and case reasoning. Eng. Rep. 7(5), e70153 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.70153
  4. Z. Kong, Q. Ge, C. Pan, Current status and future prospects of manned/unmanned teaming networking issues. Int. J. Syst. Sci. 56(4), 866–884 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1080/00207721.2024.2393697
  5. Y. Fan, B. Mi, Y. Sun, L. Yin, Research on the intelligent construction of UAV knowledge graph based on attentive semantic representation. Drones 7(6), 360 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/drones7060360
  6. A. Gondalia, D. Dixit, S. Parashar, V. Raghava, A. Sengupta et al., IoT-based healthcare monitoring system for war soldiers using machine learning. Procedia Comput. Sci. 133, 1005–1013 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2018.07.075
  7. P. Fraga-Lamas, T.M. Fernández-Caramés, M. Suárez-Albela, L. Castedo, M. González-López, A review on Internet of Things for defense and public safety. Sensors 16(10), 1644 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3390/s16101644
  8. H. Liwång, Future national energy systems, energy security and comprehensive national defence. Energies 16(18), 6627 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186627
  9. N. Ismail, N. Norhashim, S.A. Hamid, N.L. Mohd Kamal, Z. Sahwee et al., Utilizing solar energy for UAVs: advancements, challenges and future perspectives in defense and military applications - a review. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 296, 114075 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2025.114075
  10. A.N. Pathak, A.R. Yadav, Optimizing security and energy in military sensor networks: a fault-tolerant self-management approach. Eng. Res. Express 7(3), 035228 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/adeee6
  11. M. Malik, A. Kothari, R. Pandhare, Smart military logistics based on Internet of Things and energy harvesting. Adv. Electr. Electron. Eng. 23(2), 117–129 (2025). https://doi.org/10.15598/aeee.v23i2.240907
  12. S. Liu, J. Guo, Z. Zhu, L. Meng, X. Li, Multi-degree-of-freedom energy-harvesting and monitoring-coupled triboelectric nanogenerator for vibration state perception of transmission towers. Nano Energy 151, 111820 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2026.111820
  13. C. Li, Z. Liang, X. Liu, F. He, R. Gan, Short-range solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator for mechanical energy harvesting and traffic sensing. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 401, 117570 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2026.117570
  14. Y. Wang, J. Zhang, X. Jia, M. Chen, H. Wang et al., TENG-based self-powered device- the heart of life. Nano Energy 119, 109080 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.109080
  15. X. Xia, B. Zhang, H. Wang, Z. Luo, X. Tian et al., Discharge-induced wireless nanogenerator for energy harvesting and directional wireless power transfer with over 90% efficiency. J. Mater. Chem. A 13(36), 30358–30369 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ta04156b
  16. H. Shi, H. Lu, X. Liu, X. Wang, Y. Wu et al., Structure design and wireless transmission application of hybrid nanogenerators for swinging mechanical energy and solar energy harvesting. Nanoscale 14(30), 10972–10979 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1039/d2nr02833f
  17. Q. He, M. Lee, W. Wu, Fully integrated magneto-mechano-triboelectric nanogenerator for power-line stray magnetic field harvesting with record 48.2 mW/cm3 packaged power density. Nano Energy 145, 111449 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111449
  18. Y.H. Kwon, X. Meng, X. Xiao, I.-Y. Suh, D. Kim et al., Triboelectric energy harvesting technology for self-powered personal health management. Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 7(2), 022005 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ad92c7
  19. S.R. Joshi, S. Kim, High power triboelectric nanogenerator based on nanofibers of silk protein and PVBVA and its motion sensing applications. Chem. Eng. J. 489, 151248 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.151248
  20. W. Meng, Y. Yang, R. Zhang, Z. Wu, X. Xiao, Triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid generator based self-powered flexible wireless sensing for food monitoring. Chem. Eng. J. 473, 145465 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.145465
  21. H. Jung, Z. Lu, W. Hwang, B. Friedman, A. Copping et al., Modeling and sea trial of a self-powered ocean buoy harvesting Arctic Ocean wave energy using a double-side cylindrical triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano Energy 135, 110641 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110641
  22. H. Jung, B. Friedman, W. Hwang, A. Copping, R. Branch et al., Self-powered Arctic satellite communication system by harvesting wave energy using a triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano Energy 114, 108633 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108633
  23. A. Yu, J. Liu, K. Zhang, Z. Meng, Y. Li et al., Recent progress in underwater tactile sensing based on triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv. Mater. Technol. 11(7), e01954 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202501954
  24. Q. Zhou, S. Chen, J. Lai, S. Deng, J. Pan et al., High rotational speed hand-powered triboelectric nanogenerator toward a battery-free point-of-care detection system. RSC Adv. 11(38), 23221–23227 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ra03323a
  25. B. S, K. M, S. Palanisamy, T.A.N. Alshalali, A novel Hadamard matrix based hybrid compressive sensing technique for enhancing energy efficiency and network longevity. Sci. Rep. 15, 5937 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-88712-y
  26. K. Chen, Q. Sun, H. Sun, Q. Liu, Z. Chen, Tightly coupled lidar-inertial-GPS environment detection and landing area selection based on powered parafoil UAV. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 74, 2500116 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2024.3480211
  27. J. Lv, D. Zhu, Z. Geng, S. Han, Y. Wang et al., Recognition of deformation military targets in the complex scenes via MiniSAR submeter images with FASAR-net. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 61, 5209219 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2023.3280946
  28. Y. Zeng, Y. Zou, X. Lu, C. Zhou, M. Zhao et al., Advances in triboelectric sensor in extremely harsh environments. Small Meth. 10(3), e01780 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/smtd.202501780
  29. Z. Lin, M. Chi, J. Wang, Y. Liu, X. Meng et al., Flame-retardant triboelectric materials for energy harvesting and emerging applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 36(4), e15861 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202515861
  30. Y. Qiu, Y. Mou, X. Wu, Y. Zeng, Y. Xu et al., Research progress on properties and applications of triboelectric nanogenerators based on cellulosic triboelectric aerogels. Chem. Eng. J. 520, 165711 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.165711
  31. L. Liu, M. Wu, W. Zhao, J. Tao, X. Zhou et al., Progress of triboelectric nanogenerators with environmental adaptivity. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(7), 2308353 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202308353
  32. Y. Zheng, R. Mao, B. Liu, B. Ma, W. Li et al., Thermally stabilized polyacrylonitrile for flexible triboelectric devices operating from −29 ℃ to 400 ℃. Chem. Eng. J. 518, 164573 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.164573
  33. Y. Hao, X. Zhu, K. Hong, X. Lu, J. Su et al., Advanced sustainable triboelectric nanogenerators for biomedical and clinical applications: in vivo treatments, in vitro therapeutics, and assisted rehabilitations. Chem. Eng. J. 509, 161042 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.161042
  34. A. Singh, S. Singh, B.C. Yadav, In2O3 nanocubes and ZnWO4 nanorod-based triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered humidity sensors. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 398, 134721 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2023.134721
  35. K. Zhang, X. Shi, H. Jiang, K. Zeng, Z. Zhou et al., Design and fabrication of wearable electronic textiles using twisted fiber-based threads. Nat. Protoc. 19(5), 1557–1589 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-024-00956-6
  36. C. Zhi, S. Shi, H. Wu, Y. Si, S. Zhang et al., Emerging trends of nanofibrous piezoelectric and triboelectric applications: mechanisms, electroactive materials, and designed architectures. Adv. Mater. 36(26), 2401264 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202401264
  37. D. Jiang, Z. Fan, H. Wang, M. Xu, G. Chen et al., Triboelectric nanogenerator powered electrowetting-on-dielectric actuator for concealed aquatic microbots. ACS Nano 14(11), 15394–15402 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c05901
  38. S.Z. Hussain, V.P. Singh, M.S. Bin Sadeque, S. Yavari, G. Kalimuldina et al., Piezoelectric-triboelectric hybrid nanogenerator for energy harvesting and self-powered sensing applications. Small 21(43), 2504626 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202504626
  39. D.G. Dassanayaka, T.M. Alves, N.D. Wanasekara, I.G. Dharmasena, J. Ventura, Recent progresses in wearable triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(44), 2205438 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202205438
  40. Z. Zhu, Z. Wang, K. Dai, X. Wang, H. Zhang et al., An adaptive and space-energy efficiency vibration absorber system using a self-sensing and tunable magnetorheological elastomer. Nano Energy 117, 108927 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108927
  41. O. Saritas, S. Burmaoglu, Future of sustainable military operations under emerging energy and security considerations. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 102, 331–343 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.08.010
  42. W. Peng, R. Zhu, Q. Ni, J. Zhao, X. Zhu et al., Functional tactile sensor based on arrayed triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(44), 2403289 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202403289
  43. B.K. Dejene, The future of fabric: a comprehensive review of self-powered smart textiles and their emerging applications. Energy Rep. 14, 898–943 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2025.07.002
  44. H. Ge, S. Zhao, B. Dai, S. Chen, Y. Pan et al., Acoustic triboelectric nanogenerator for underwater acoustic communication. Nano Energy 136, 110738 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.110738
  45. H. Wang, Z. Zhao, L. Zhang, Z. Su, C. Chen et al., High-performance low-temperature self-healing bio-based polyurethane triboelectric nanogenerator for wireless intelligent target systems. Nano Energy 133, 110438 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110438
  46. S. Bayan, S. Pal, S.K. Ray, Boron carbonitride (BxCyNz) nanosheets based single electrode triboelectric nanogenerator for wearable UV photodetectors. Appl. Mater. Today 30, 101686 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2022.101686
  47. F. Chen, Y. Wu, Z. Ding, X. Xia, S. Li et al., A novel triboelectric nanogenerator based on electrospun polyvinylidene fluoride nanofibers for effective acoustic energy harvesting and self-powered multifunctional sensing. Nano Energy 56, 241–251 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.11.041
  48. C. Bao, M. He, J. Li, Y. Hu, Y. Wang et al., Study on the surface charge transfer mechanism induced by dual-electric field mutual inductance. J. Mater. Chem. A 12(27), 16636–16647 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ta02651a
  49. C. Bao, M. He, J. Li, Y. Hu, J. Ma et al., Improving the surface charge density of multi-layered triboelectric nanogenerator by dual-electric field mutual inductance. Chem. Eng. J. 516, 164272 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.164272
  50. F.R. Fan, W. Tang, Z.L. Wang, Flexible nanogenerators for energy harvesting and self‐powered electronics. Adv. Mater. 28(22), 4283–4305 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201504299
  51. Z. Zhao, J. Wang, Advances in interfacial electrostatic energy harvesting via direct current triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Energy Mater. 15(41), 2502544 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202502544
  52. S. Panda, S. Hajra, H. Kim, J. Seo, B. Jeong et al., An overview of flame-retardant materials for triboelectric nanogenerators and future applications. Adv. Mater. 37(9), 2415099 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202415099
  53. J. Wang, X. Li, Y. Zi, S. Wang, Z. Li et al., A flexible fiber‐based supercapacitor–triboelectric‐nanogenerator power system for wearable electronics. Adv. Mater. 27(33), 4830–4836 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201501934
  54. Z. Gao, Y. Zhou, J. Zhang, J. Foroughi, S. Peng et al., Advanced energy harvesters and energy storage for powering wearable and implantable medical devices. Adv. Mater. 36(42), 2404492 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202404492
  55. C. Bao, M. He, X. Jiang, J. Li, Y. Hu et al., Review of triboelectric nanogenerators designs for wave energy harvesting: tailoring strategies for various marine conditions. Adv. Mater. Technol. 10(12), 2402212 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202402212
  56. S.A. Basith, G. Khandelwal, D.M. Mulvihill, A. Chandrasekhar, Upcycling of waste materials for the development of triboelectric nanogenerators and self-powered applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(51), 2408708 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202408708
  57. C. Zhang, Y. Hao, X. Lu, W. Su, H. Zhang et al., Advances in TENGs for marine energy harvesting and in situ electrochemistry. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 124 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01640-w
  58. S. Zhou, C. Jia, G. Shu, Z. Guan, H. Wu et al., Recent advances in TENGs collecting acoustic energy: from low-frequency sound to ultrasound. Nano Energy 129, 109951 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109951
  59. Y. Yang, X. Guo, M. Zhu, Z. Sun, Z. Zhang et al., Triboelectric nanogenerator enabled wearable sensors and electronics for sustainable Internet of Things integrated green earth. Adv. Energy Mater. 13(1), 2203040 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202203040
  60. N. Gnanaseelan, D.P. Pabba, D.E. Acuña-Ureta, G. Fischerauer, S. Tremmel et al., Two-dimensional layered materials for triboelectric nanogenerators. Prog. Mater. Sci. 158, 101622 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2025.101622
  61. J.C. Sobarzo, F. Pertl, D.M. Balazs, T. Costanzo, M. Sauer et al., Spontaneous ordering of identical materials into a triboelectric series. Nature 638(8051), 664–669 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6
  62. A. Chen, C. Zhang, G. Zhu, Z.L. Wang, Polymer materials for high‐performance triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Sci. 7(14), 2000186 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202000186
  63. G. Khandelwal, R. Dahiya, Self-powered active sensing based on triboelectric generators. Adv. Mater. 34(33), e2200724 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202200724
  64. S. Anbalagan, K. Manojkumar, M. Muthuramalingam, S. Hajra, S. Panda et al., Progress and recent advances in self-powered gas sensing based on triboelectric and piezoelectric nanogenerators. Chem. Eng. J. 497, 154740 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.154740
  65. E. Sun, Y. Wang, Z. Zhang, Y. Chen, M. Shoaib et al., Hydrogel-based triboelectric nanogenerators: current progress and future perspectives. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(50), e11382 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202511382
  66. F. Xing, X. Gao, J. Wen, H. Li, H. Liu et al., Multistrand twisted triboelectric Kevlar yarns for harvesting high impact energy, body injury location and levels evaluation. Adv. Sci. 11(21), 2401076 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202401076
  67. M. Chi, C. Cai, Y. Liu, S. Zhang, T. Liu et al., Aramid triboelectric materials: opportunities for self-powered wearable personal protective electronics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(52), 2411020 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202411020
  68. C. Cai, X. Meng, L. Zhang, B. Luo, Y. Liu et al., High strength and toughness polymeric triboelectric materials enabled by dense crystal-domain cross-linking. Nano Lett. 24(12), 3826–3834 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c00918
  69. X. Li, J. Wang, Y. Liu, T. Zhao, B. Luo et al., Lightweight and strong cellulosic triboelectric materials enabled by cell wall nanoengineering. Nano Lett. 24(10), 3273–3281 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c00458
  70. R. Tu, H.C. Kim, O.A.H. Baabdullah, H.A. Sodano, Alignment controlled aramid nanofiber-assembled films. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(30), 2315422 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202315422
  71. C. Xie, L. He, Y. Shi, Z.-X. Guo, T. Qiu et al., From monomers to a lasagna-like aerogel monolith: an assembling strategy for aramid nanofibers. ACS Nano 13(7), 7811–7824 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.9b01955
  72. Q. Chen, Y. Xiong, Y. Wang, J. Wang, S. Zhou et al., Architecturally partitioned core-sheath woven fabric for integrated electromagnetic wave absorption and self-powered non-contact sensing. Adv. Funct. Mater. 36(15), e18158 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202518158
  73. L. Tang, X. Hui, J. Chen, H. Guo, F. Wu, Self-powered, anti-detectable wireless near-field communication strategy based on mechano-driven Maxwell’s displacement current. Nano Energy 118, 109001 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.109001
  74. Z.L. Wang, From contact electrification to triboelectric nanogenerators. Rep. Prog. Phys. 84(9), 096502 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6633/ac0a50
  75. P.E. Shaw, The electrical charges from like solids. Nature 118(2975), 659–660 (1926). https://doi.org/10.1038/118659c0
  76. D.J. Lacks, T. Shinbrot, Long-standing and unresolved issues in triboelectric charging. Nat. Rev. Chem. 3(8), 465–476 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-019-0115-1
  77. Z.L. Wang, Triboelectric nanogenerators as new energy technology and self-powered sensors–principles, problems and perspectives. Faraday Discuss. 176, 447–458 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1039/c4fd00159a
  78. H.T. Baytekin, A.Z. Patashinski, M. Branicki, B. Baytekin, S. Soh et al., The mosaic of surface charge in contact electrification. Science 333(6040), 308–312 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201512
  79. C. Liu, A.J. Bard, Electrostatic electrochemistry at insulators. Nat. Mater. 7(6), 505–509 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2160
  80. J.-H. Lee, R. Hinchet, T.Y. Kim, H. Ryu, W. Seung et al., Control of skin potential by triboelectrification with ferroelectric polymers. Adv. Mater. 27(37), 5553–5558 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201502463
  81. J. Hu, M. Iwamoto, X. Chen, A review of contact electrification at diversified interfaces and related applications on triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano-Micro Lett. 16(1), 7 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01238-8
  82. D.M. Mulvihill, R. Mukherjee, Y. Xu, C. Kumar, G. Khandelwal et al., How to test triboelectric nanogenerators: key factors for standardized performance evaluation. Adv. Energy Mater. 15(44), e02920 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202502920
  83. Z.L. Wang, On Maxwell’s displacement current for energy and sensors: the origin of nanogenerators. Mater. Today 20(2), 74–82 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2016.12.001
  84. X. Hui, Z. Hu, Y. Ren, S. Gong, H. Zhou et al., Reviving acoustic sensing via a triboelectric nanogenerator: principle, progress, and perspective. Int. J. Extreme Manuf. 8(2), 022012 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/ae289f
  85. J. Shao, T. Jiang, Z. Wang, Theoretical foundations of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs). Sci. China Technol. Sci. 63(7), 1087–1109 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-020-1604-9
  86. Z.L. Wang, T. Jiang, L. Xu, Toward the blue energy dream by triboelectric nanogenerator networks. Nano Energy 39, 9–23 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.06.035
  87. Z.L. Wang, On the first principle theory of nanogenerators from Maxwell’s equations. Nano Energy 68, 104272 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.104272
  88. Z.L. Wang, On the expanded Maxwell’s equations for moving charged media system–General theory, mathematical solutions and applications in TENG. Mater. Today 52, 348–363 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2021.10.027
  89. Z. Ye, T. Liu, G. Du, Y. Shao, Z. Wei et al., Bioinspired superhydrophobic triboelectric materials for energy harvesting. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(2), 2412545 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202412545
  90. Y. Yu, Q. Gao, X. Zhang, D. Zhao, X. Xia et al., Contact-sliding-separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator. Energy Environ. Sci. 16(9), 3932–3941 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ee01290e
  91. Y. Tang, X. Liu, Y. Xiong, B. Xu, Y. Zhou, Emerging frontiers in triboelectric nanogenerator for biohealth apparatus. Nano Energy 138, 110844 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.110844
  92. X. Qu, X. Liu, Y. Yue, Y. Tang, P. Miao, Triboelectric nanogenerator-enabled self-powered strategies for sensing applications. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 185, 118191 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2025.118191
  93. S. Niu, S. Wang, L. Lin, Y. Liu, Y.S. Zhou et al., Theoretical study of contact-mode triboelectric nanogenerators as an effective power source. Energy Environ. Sci. 6(12), 3576–3583 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ee42571a
  94. M. Zhou, M. Huang, H. Zhong, C. Xing, Y. An et al., Contact separation triboelectric nanogenerator based neural interfacing for effective sciatic nerve restoration. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(22), 2200269 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202200269
  95. G. Zhu, J. Chen, Y. Liu, P. Bai, Y.S. Zhou et al., Linear-grating triboelectric generator based on sliding electrification. Nano Lett. 13(5), 2282–2289 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl4008985
  96. W. He, Y. Liu, J. Jin, J. Cai, B. Wan et al., High durability sliding TENG with enhanced output achieved by capturing multiple region charges for harvesting wind energy. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 199 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-02043-1
  97. S. Wang, L. Lin, Y. Xie, Q. Jing, S. Niu et al., Sliding-triboelectric nanogenerators based on in-plane charge-separation mechanism. Nano Lett. 13(5), 2226–2233 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl400738p
  98. G. Li, J. Wang, Y. He, S. Xu, S. Fu et al., Ultra-stability and high output performance of a sliding mode triboelectric nanogenerator achieved by an asymmetric electrode structure design. Energy Environ. Sci. 17(7), 2651–2661 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ee04253g
  99. W. Yang, J. Wang, X. Wang, P. Chen, Anisotropic tribology and electrification properties of sliding-mode triboelectric nanogenerator with groove textures. Friction 12(8), 1828–1837 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40544-024-0861-z
  100. W. He, W. Liu, J. Chen, Z. Wang, Y. Liu et al., Boosting output performance of sliding mode triboelectric nanogenerator by charge space-accumulation effect. Nat. Commun. 11(1), 4277 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18086-4
  101. Y. Yang, Y.S. Zhou, H. Zhang, Y. Liu, S. Lee et al., A single-electrode based triboelectric nanogenerator as self-powered tracking system. Adv. Mater. 25(45), 6594–6601 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201302453
  102. J. Zhang, S. Lin, M. Zheng, Z.L. Wang, Triboelectric nanogenerator as a probe for measuring the charge transfer between liquid and solid surfaces. ACS Nano 15(9), 14830–14837 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.1c04903
  103. J. Meng, L. Zhang, H. Liu, W. Sun, W. Wang et al., A new single-electrode generator for water droplet energy harvesting with a 3 mA current output. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(5), 2303298 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202303298
  104. Y. Yao, K. Wang, X. Gao, Z. Zhou, Y. Liu et al., Planar acceleration sensor for UAV in cruise state based on single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerator. IEEE Sens. J. 23(3), 3041–3049 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2022.3226478
  105. J.-C. Ye, C.-S. He, X.-R. Gong, H.-H. Zhang, X. Li, Blue energy harvesting based on triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG): structural design, performance optimization, and application prospects. J. Alloys Compd. 1014, 178710 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.178710
  106. S. Wang, Y. Xie, S. Niu, L. Lin, Z.L. Wang, Freestanding triboelectric-layer-based nanogenerators for harvesting energy from a moving object or human motion in contact and non-contact modes. Adv. Mater. 26(18), 2818–2824 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201305303
  107. A. Li, Q. Zhu, Y. Mi, H. Ur Rehman, M. Shoaib et al., Triboelectric nanogenerator drives electrochemical water splitting for hydrogen production: fundamentals, progress, and challenges. Small 21(1), e2407043 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202407043
  108. S. Niu, Y. Liu, X. Chen, S. Wang, Y.S. Zhou et al., Theory of freestanding triboelectric-layer-based nanogenerators. Nano Energy 12, 760–774 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.01.013
  109. G. Zhu, J. Chen, T. Zhang, Q. Jing, Z.L. Wang, Radial-arrayed rotary electrification for high performance triboelectric generator. Nat. Commun. 5, 3426 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4426
  110. X. Fu, X. Pan, Y. Liu, J. Li, Z. Zhang et al., Non-contact triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(52), 2306749 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202306749
  111. Z. Li, B. Cui, H. Guo, Y. Gong, C. Yang et al., Frequency influence on freestanding-mode triboelectric nanogenerators. Chem. Eng. J. 511, 162060 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.162060
  112. Z.L. Wang, Nanogenerators and piezotronics: from scientific discoveries to technology breakthroughs. MRS Bull. 48(10), 1014–1025 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1557/s43577-023-00576-7
  113. J. Wang, Z. Wang, X. Wang, J. Zhang, Y. Zhao et al., Progress on wave energy harvesting by adaptively designed triboelectric nanogenerators for marine science. Prog. Nat. Sci. Mater. Int. 34(6), 1109–1131 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2024.09.007
  114. C. Li, Y. Bai, J. Shao, H. Meng, Z. Li, Strategies to improve the output performance of triboelectric nanogenerators. Small Methods 8(10), e2301682 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/smtd.202301682
  115. J. Tao, T. Wei, X. Chen, C.B. Han, L. Long et al., Figures-of-merit for rolling-friction-based triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Mater. Technol. 1(1), 1600017 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201600017
  116. L. Lin, Y. Xie, S. Niu, S. Wang, P.-K. Yang et al., Robust triboelectric nanogenerator based on rolling electrification and electrostatic induction at an instantaneous energy conversion efficiency of ∼55%. ACS Nano 9(1), 922–930 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/nn506673x
  117. Y. Liu, J. Mo, Q. Fu, Y. Lu, N. Zhang et al., Enhancement of triboelectric charge density by chemical functionalization. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30(50), 2004714 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202004714
  118. H. Zou, L. Guo, H. Xue, Y. Zhang, X. Shen et al., Quantifying and understanding the triboelectric series of inorganic non-metallic materials. Nat. Commun. 11(1), 2093 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15926-1
  119. D. Yoo, S. Jang, S. Cho, D. Choi, D.S. Kim, A liquid triboelectric series. Adv. Mater. 35(26), 2300699 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202300699
  120. M. Seol, S. Kim, Y. Cho, K.-E. Byun, H. Kim et al., Triboelectric series of 2D layered materials. Adv. Mater. 30(39), e1801210 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201801210
  121. K. Dong, Y. Zhang, X. Fan, L.N.Y. Cao, X. Peng, Microfiber-based triboelectric acoustic sensors enable self-powered ultrasonic localization and tracking underwater. ACS Sens. 10(2), 1366–1377 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.4c03283
  122. C. Liu, S. Cui, L. Li, Z. Zhao, H. Li et al., Structural design and performance study of sunny/rainy adaptive triboelectric nanogenerators for self-powered coating thickness sensing. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 733, 139308 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2025.139308
  123. Y. Wang, W. Jiang, Y. Yang, C. Wang, D. Zhao et al., Ternary systems engineered conductive hydrogel with extraordinary strength, environmental adaptability and excellent electrochemical performances for flexible power supply devices. Energy Storage Mater. 70, 103483 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2024.103483
  124. T. Du, Z. Chen, F. Dong, H. Cai, Y. Zou et al., Advances in green triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(24), 2313794 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202313794
  125. J.G. Kirchhoff, S. Khaleghi, G. Haugstad, T.B. Hudson, M. Tehrani, Sub-melt consolidation of aerospace-grade thermoplastic composites for high-rate processing. Adv. Mater. 38(9), e14390 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202514390
  126. Z. Shi, Z. Liang, Z. Huang, A. He, S. Qiao et al., Revolutionizing fiber materials for space: multi-scale interface engineering unlocks new aerospace frontiers. Mater. Today 88, 643–704 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2025.06.010
  127. G. Khandelwal, N.P. Maria Joseph Raj, S.-J. Kim, Materials beyond conventional triboelectric series for fabrication and applications of triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Energy Mater. 11(33), 2101170 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202101170
  128. H. Zou, Y. Zhang, L. Guo, P. Wang, X. He et al., Quantifying the triboelectric series. Nat. Commun. 10, 1427 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09461-x
  129. H. Xiang, L. Peng, Q. Yang, Z.L. Wang, X. Cao, Triboelectric nanogenerator for high-entropy energy, self-powered sensors, and popular education. Sci. Adv. 10(48), eads2291 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads2291
  130. J. Wang, S. Xu, C. Hu, Charge generation and enhancement of key components of triboelectric nanogenerators: a review. Adv. Mater. 36(50), 2409833 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202409833
  131. Y. Li, Y. Luo, H. Deng, S. Shi, S. Tian et al., Advanced dielectric materials for triboelectric nanogenerators: principles, methods, and applications. Adv. Mater. 36(52), e2314380 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202314380
  132. Y. Chen, B. Xie, J. Long, Y. Kuang, X. Chen et al., Interfacial laser-induced graphene enabling high-performance liquid-solid triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv. Mater. 33(44), e2104290 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202104290
  133. Y. Xia, Y. Zhu, X. Zhi, W. Guo, B. Yang et al., Transparent self-healing anti-freezing ionogel for monolayered triboelectric nanogenerator and electromagnetic energy-based touch panel. Adv. Mater. 36(8), 2308424 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202308424
  134. Z. Yuan, X. Du, N. Li, Y. Yin, R. Cao et al., Triboelectric-based transparent secret code. Adv. Sci. 5(4), 1700881 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201700881
  135. G. Du, Y. Shao, B. Luo, T. Liu, J. Zhao et al., Compliant iontronic triboelectric gels with phase-locked structure enabled by competitive hydrogen bonding. Nano-Micro Lett. 16(1), 170 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01387-4
  136. D. Shen, F. Li, Y. Su, L. Zhu, Harnessing the power from ambient moisture with hygroscopic materials. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 133 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01983-y
  137. Z. Tian, G.C. Tsui, Y.-M. Tang, C.-H. Wong, C.-Y. Tang et al., Additive manufacturing for nanogenerators: fundamental mechanisms, recent advancements, and future prospects. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 30 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01874-2
  138. Z. Quan, Q. Zhang, H. Li, S. Sun, Y. Xu, Fluorescent cellulose-based materials for information encryption and anti-counterfeiting. Coord. Chem. Rev. 493, 215287 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2023.215287
  139. K.R. Choo, The cyber threat landscape: challenges and future research directions. Comput. Secur. 30(8), 719–731 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2011.08.004
  140. F.-F. Xu, Z.-L. Gong, Y.-W. Zhong, J. Yao, Y.S. Zhao, Wavelength-tunable single-mode microlasers based on photoresponsive pitch modulation of liquid crystals for information encryption. Research 2020, 2020/6539431 (2020). https://doi.org/10.34133/2020/6539431
  141. J. Zhang, C. Song, S. Zhang, S. Qin, Y. Ren et al., Time-dependent information encryption in liquid crystalline polymer with programmable glass transition temperature. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(28), 2400030 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202400030
  142. C. Zhu, L.-Q. Tao, Z. Peng, G. Wang, Y. Huang et al., An integrated luminescent information encryption–decryption and anticounterfeiting chip based on laser induced graphene. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(43), 2103255 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202103255
  143. J. Kim, P. Kang, Freely typed keystroke dynamics-based user authentication for mobile devices based on heterogeneous features. Pattern Recognit. 108, 107556 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2020.107556
  144. R. Wang, X. Jin, Q. Wang, Q. Zhang, H. Yuan et al., A transparent, flexible triboelectric nanogenerator for anti-counterfeiting based on photothermal effect. Matter 6(5), 1514–1529 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2023.02.013
  145. A. Yu, X. Chen, H. Cui, L. Chen, J. Luo et al., Self-powered random number generator based on coupled triboelectric and electrostatic induction effects at the liquid-dielectric interface. ACS Nano 10(12), 11434–11441 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.6b07030
  146. W. Zhang, L. Deng, X. Lü, M. Liu, Z. Ren et al., Advanced handwriting identification: triboelectric sensor array integrating with deep learning toward high information security. InfoMat 7(8), e70002 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/inf2.70002
  147. T. Zhang, F. Manshaii, C.R. Bowen, M. Zhang, W. Qian et al., A flexible pressure sensor array for self-powered identity authentication during typing. Sci. Adv. 11(11), eads2297 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads2297
  148. W. Chen, J. Kang, J. Zhang, Y. Zhang, X. Zhou et al., An information display and encrypted transmission system based on a triboelectric nanogenerator and a cholesteric liquid crystal. Nano Energy 134, 110594 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110594
  149. W. Zhang, M. Liu, X. Lü, L. Deng, X. Fan et al., Triboelectric sensor-empowered intelligent mouse combined with machine learning technology strides toward a computer security system. Nano Energy 126, 109666 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109666
  150. H. Yu, Z. Tan, W. Peng, Self-powered luminescent barcode recognition system based on triboelectric-induced electroluminescence. Adv. Mater. Technol. 10(24), e00968 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202500968
  151. Y. Wang, Q. Yang, Y. Li, L. Peng, C. Zhang et al., Light-emitting visual triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered personal security. ACS Energy Lett. 9(5), 2231–2239 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.4c00663
  152. X. Zhang, R.F. Ali, J.-C. Boyer, N.R. Branda, B.D. Gates, Direct photolithographic deposition of color-coded anti-counterfeit patterns with titania encapsulated upconverting nanops. Adv. Opt. Mater. 8(20), 2000664 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adom.202000664
  153. S. Zhang, Y. Zhu, Y. Xia, K. Liu, S. Li et al., Wearable integrated self-powered electroluminescence display device based on all-in-one MXene electrode for information encryption. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(44), 2307609 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202307609
  154. T. Hou, W. Li, H. Wang, Y. Zheng, C. Chen et al., An ultra thin, bright, and sensitive interactive tactile display based on organic mechanoluminescence for dual-mode handwriting identification. InfoMat 6(6), e12523 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/inf2.12523
  155. W. Zhou, J. Zeng, Z. Dong, C. Xiao, L. Gong et al., A degradable tribotronic transistor for self-destructing intelligent package e-labels. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(23), 30255–30263 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c04322
  156. Y. Wang, H. Luo, Y. Shao, H. Wang, T. Liu et al., Detection and anti-detection with microwave-infrared compatible camouflage using asymmetric composite metasurface. Adv. Sci. 11(43), 2410364 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202410364
  157. Q. Li, K. Dai, W. Zhang, X. Wang, Z. You et al., Triboelectric nanogenerator-based wearable electronic devices and systems: toward informatization and intelligence. Digit. Signal Process. 113, 103038 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsp.2021.103038
  158. F.R. Fan, W. Wu, Emerging devices based on two-dimensional monolayer materials for energy harvesting. Research (2019). https://doi.org/10.34133/2019/7367828
  159. H. Chu, J. Xue, D. Luo, H. Zheng, Z. Li, Advances in wearable multifunctional devices based on human-body energy harvesting. Adv. Mater. Technol. 9(21), 2302068 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202302068
  160. L. Xiao, B. Yin, Z. Geng, J. Li, R. Jia et al., Flexible wearable devices based on self-powered energy supply. Nano Energy 142, 111157 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111157
  161. Z. Li, X. Yan, H. Wu, Y. Peng, F. Shen et al., Tailoring electrode topology and strain distribution in flexible piezoelectric nanogenerators for efficient low-frequency biomechanical energy scavenging. Chem. Eng. J. 532, 174058 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2026.174058
  162. Y. Li, Y. Wang, Y. Huang, A review on MXene/nanocellulose composites: toward wearable multifunctional electromagnetic interference shielding application. Small 21(5), 2410283 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202410283
  163. B. Wu, Q. Qi, L. Liu, Y. Liu, J. Wang, Wearable aerogels for personal thermal management and smart devices. ACS Nano 18(14), 9798–9822 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c00967
  164. P. Zhao, D. Gao, Y. Zhou, B. Lyu, J. Ma, Multifunctional integrated flexible triboelectric nanogenerator based on collagen fibers for smart wearable devices. Chem. Eng. J. 522, 167693 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.167693
  165. G. Lee, F. Asif, S.U. Rahman, M.Z. Khan, A. Maqbool et al., Enhancing output efficiency in self-powered hybrid nanogenerators with micro-pyramid surface design using ceramic/polymer film for flexible wearable electronic devices. RSC Adv. 15(11), 8385–8401 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ra08556f
  166. Y. Shen, Z. Jiang, H. Huang, S. Wang, S. Wu et al., Advances in textile-based triboelectric sensors for physiological signal monitoring. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(37), 2426081 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202426081
  167. H. Shi, H. Zhao, Y. Liu, W. Gao, S.-C. Dou, Systematic analysis of a military wearable device based on a multi-level fusion framework: research directions. Sensors 19(12), 2651 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/s19122651
  168. Q. Zheng, L. Xin, Q. Zhang, F. Shen, X. Lu et al., Leech-inspired amphibious soft robot driven by high-voltage triboelectricity. Adv. Mater. 37(8), e2417380 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202417380
  169. Y. Guo, K. Li, C. Hou, Y. Li, Q. Zhang et al., Fluoroalkylsilane-modified textile-based personal energy management device for multifunctional wearable applications. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8(7), 4676–4683 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b11622
  170. Y. Jin, D. Ka, S. Jang, D. Heo, J.A. Seo et al., Fabrication of graphene based durable intelligent personal protective clothing for conventional and non-conventional chemical threats. Nanomaterials 11(4), 940 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11040940
  171. M. Chi, S. Zhang, T. Liu, Y. Liu, B. Luo et al., Tunable anisotropic structural aramid triboelectric aerogels enabled by magnetic manipulation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(10), 2310280 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202310280
  172. X. Zhu, Q. Chang, H. Li, J. Wang, S. Guo et al., Multifunctional wearable spider-silk inspired fabric for personal protection in extreme environments. Chem. Eng. J. 491, 152011 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.152011
  173. C. Xu, W. Chen, Z. Cao, Y. Chen, C. Han et al., Double conductive network enhanced multifunctional foam-based devices for wearable military suits. Compos. Part B Eng. 303, 112578 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2025.112578
  174. W. Dong, Y. Wang, Y. Zhou, Y. Bai, Z. Ju et al., Soft human–machine interfaces: design, sensing and stimulation. Int. J. Intell. Robot. Appl. 2(3), 313–338 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41315-018-0060-z
  175. K. Konstantoudakis, K. Christaki, D. Tsiakmakis, D. Sainidis, G. Albanis et al., Drone control in AR: an intuitive system for single-handed gesture control, drone tracking, and contextualized camera feed visualization in augmented reality. Drones 6(2), 43 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/drones6020043
  176. T.H. Wong, Y. Liu, J. Li, K. Yao, S. Liu et al., Triboelectric nanogenerator tattoos enabled by epidermal electronic technologies. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(15), 2111269 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202111269
  177. M. Gao, H. Wu, R. Plamthottam, Z. Xie, Y. Liu et al., Skin temperature-triggered, debonding-on-demand sticker for a self-powered mechanosensitive communication system. Matter 4(6), 1962–1974 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2021.03.003
  178. G. Tang, Q. Shi, Z. Zhang, T. He, Z. Sun et al., Hybridized wearable patch as a multi-parameter and multi-functional human-machine interface. Nano Energy 81, 105582 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105582
  179. D. Vera Anaya, T. He, C. Lee, M.R. Yuce, Self-powered eye motion sensor based on triboelectric interaction and near-field electrostatic induction for wearable assistive technologies. Nano Energy 72, 104675 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104675
  180. M. Liu, P. Li, Y.J. Tan, Z. Yang, H.H. See et al., An extreme environment capable self‐healing single active layered triboelectric sensors as fully recyclable and transparent human‐machine interfaces. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(4), 2414152 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202414152
  181. S. Zhang, M. Guo, Y. Xia, S. Li, X. Zhi et al., Noncontact monolayered triboelectric nanogenerator based on stretchable MWCNTs/MXene/Ecoflex film for human–machine interface and high-accuracy handwritten recognition. Chem. Eng. J. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.159562
  182. T. He, Z. Sun, Q. Shi, M. Zhu, D.V. Anaya et al., Self-powered glove-based intuitive interface for diversified control applications in real/cyber space. Nano Energy 58, 641–651 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.01.091
  183. F. Wen, H. Wang, T. He, Q. Shi, Z. Sun et al., Battery-free short-range self-powered wireless sensor network (SS-WSN) using TENG based direct sensory transmission (TDST) mechanism. Nano Energy 67, 104266 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.104266
  184. K. Tao, J. Yu, J. Zhang, A. Bao, H. Hu et al., Deep-learning enabled active biomimetic multifunctional hydrogel electronic skin. ACS Nano 17(16), 16160–16173 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.3c05253
  185. H. Liu, D. Li, H. Chu, Y. Ding, Z. Fu et al., Ultra-stretchable triboelectric touch pad with sandpaper micro-surfaces for transformer-assisted gesture recognition. Nano Energy 130, 110110 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110110
  186. C. Wang, H. Niu, G. Shen, Y. Li, Self-healing hydrogel-based triboelectric nanogenerator in smart glove system for integrated drone safety protection and motion control. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(17), 2419809 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202419809
  187. K. Zheng, L. Wang, X. Zhang, C. Zhou, M. Yue et al., The efficient and stable triboelectric nanogenerator materials based on electrostatic attraction between biomass and metal oxides for UAV flight control. Adv. Mater. 38(4), e15462 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202515462
  188. S. Chakoma, J. Rajendran, X. Pei, A. Ghandehari, J.A.T. Negrete et al., Nanomaterials-based, transducer-side active-electronic-free, self-powered, and wireless wearable E-skin for augmented interactive human-robots. Nano Energy 142, 111199 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111199
  189. J. Guo, J. He, Z. Yuan, J. Tao, X. Liu et al., Self-powered angle-resolved triboelectric nanogenerator for underwater vibration localization. Nano Energy 110, 108392 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108392
  190. B. Liu, B. Dong, H. Jin, P. Zhu, Z. Mu et al., Deep-learning-assisted triboelectric whisker sensor array for real-time motion sensing of unmanned underwater vehicle. Adv. Mater. Technol. 10(3), 2401053 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202401053
  191. J. Liu, Z. Meng, K. Zhang, Z. Xi, Y. Li et al., Multi-degree-of-freedom, semi-flexible, embedded biomimetic tail fin sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerator for proprioception of underwater bionic robotic fish. Nano Energy 148, 111689 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111689
  192. K. Telli, O. Kraa, Y. Himeur, A. Ouamane, M. Boumehraz et al., A comprehensive review of recent research trends on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Systems 11(8), 400 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11080400
  193. Y. Li, H. Sheng, J. Hu, R. Huang, L.N.Y. Cao et al., Lightweight self-powered digital aircraft rotational speed sensor up to 10,000 rpm. Nano Res. 18(11), 94907858 (2025). https://doi.org/10.26599/nr.2025.94907858
  194. V.D. Paccoia, F. Bonacci, G. Clementi, F. Cottone, I. Neri et al., Toward field deployment: tackling the energy challenge in environmental sensors. Sensors 25(18), 5618 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/s25185618
  195. K. Wang, Y. Yao, Y. Liu, X. Guan, Y. Yu et al., Self-powered system for real-time wireless monitoring and early warning of UAV motor vibration based on triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano Energy 129, 110012 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110012
  196. Z. Zhu, M. Wang, A. Wang, M. Wang, B. Xiong et al., Improved self-sensing harsh-impact absorber merging compression-torsion metamaterial with active magnetorheological effects. Nano Energy 139, 110921 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.110921
  197. J.M. Almardi, X. Bo, J. Shi, I. Firdous, W.A. Daoud, Drone rotational triboelectric nanogenerator for supplemental power generation and RPM sensing. Nano Energy 135, 110614 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110614
  198. X. Guan, Y. Yao, K. Wang, Y. Liu, Z. Pan et al., Wireless online rotation monitoring system for UAV motors based on a soft-contact triboelectric nanogenerator. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(35), 46516–46526 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c07890
  199. X. Lu, S. Zhong, C. Zhou, S. Tian, W. Zhou et al., Self-powered real-time fault monitoring for drone blades. Nano Energy 140, 111073 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111073
  200. Z. Zhou, Z. Xu, L.N.Y. Cao, H. Sheng, C. Li et al., Triboelectricity based self-powered digital displacement sensor for aircraft flight actuation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(8), 2311839 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202311839
  201. X. Xie, Y. Chen, J. Jiang, J. Li, Y. Yang et al., Self-powered gyroscope angle sensor based on resistive matching effect of triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv. Mater. Technol. 6(10), 2100797 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202100797
  202. Y. Yao, Z. Zhou, K. Wang, Y. Liu, X. Lu et al., Arc-shaped flutter-driven wind speed sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerator for unmanned aerial vehicle. Nano Energy 104, 107871 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107871
  203. Y. Liu, Y. Yao, K. Wang, X. Guan, T. Li et al., A bioinspired triboelectric wireless anemometer with low cut-in wind speed for meteorological UAVs. Nano Energy 128, 109917 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109917
  204. Z. Wang, K. Wang, Y. Liu, X. Guan, Z. Pan et al., Triboelectric sensor with a hierarchical structure for omnidirectional adaptive wind speed and wind direction sensing for unmanned aerial vehicles. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 17(16), 23984–23995 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5c01043
  205. Z. Pan, K. Wang, Y. Liu, X. Guan, C. Chen et al., Deep learning-enhanced safety system for real-time in-situ blade damage monitoring in UAV using triboelectric sensor. Nano Energy 140, 111063 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111063
  206. M. Šlebir, Weaponizing the edge of space? “,” ¿Armar los confines del espacio?: progress and prospects of military high-altitude platforms “,” Avances y perspectivas de Las plataformas militares de gran altitud. Rev. Científica Gen. José María Córdova 23(51), 565–588 (2025). https://doi.org/10.21830/19006586.1483
  207. T. Jiang, Q. Zhang, Bearing failure impulse enhancement method using multiple resonance band centre positioning and envelope integration. Measurement 200, 111623 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2022.111623
  208. Z. Li, J. Mu, M. Luo, H. Wang, Hybrid piezoelectric-triboelectric vibration energy harvester for intelligent bearing self-powered system. Eng. Res. Express 7(4), 045572 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/ae1b63
  209. J. Liu, L. Qi, C. Hu, J. Huang, K. Zhang et al., Electromagnetic-based kinetic energy harvesting and triboelectric nanogenerator-based state self-sensing for aircraft landing gear. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 45, e01637 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2025.e01637
  210. Z. Xu, L.N.Y. Cao, C. Li, Y. Luo, E. Su et al., Digital mapping of surface turbulence status and aerodynamic stall on wings of a flying aircraft. Nat. Commun. 14(1), 2792 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38486-6
  211. C. Li, Y. Yang, A self-powered vibration sensor for real-time vibration monitoring and aeroelastic instability detection in tiltrotor aircraft transition. AIP Adv. 15(9), 095314 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0288836
  212. Z. Jiang, Z. Dong, X. Fu, Z. Gao, L. Gong et al., Weak vibration energy powered acceleration monitoring system for bearing fault diagnosis. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 244, 113823 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2025.113823
  213. J. Tang, Y. Hu, Y. Shang, M. Xu, J. Zhang, Bioinspired-algorithmic synergistic sensing system toward broadband vibration perception and compound fault diagnosis for rotating machinery. Adv. Funct. Mater. 36(18), e23655 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202523655
  214. Y. Zhu, H. Wang, H. Sun, G. Wang, M. Zhu, Smart fibers and products for aerospace applications. Chin. Sci. Bull. 70(17), 2750–2762 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1360/tb-2024-0584
  215. Y.F. Wang, B. Cao, Y.W. Yang, Y. Yu, P.H. Wang et al., Multi-channel self-powered attitude sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerator and inertia. Nano Energy 107, 108164 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.108164
  216. Q. Zhu, L. Zhu, Z. Wang, X. Zhang, Q. Li et al., Hybrid triboelectric-piezoelectric nanogenerator assisted intelligent condition monitoring for aero-engine pipeline system. Chem. Eng. J. 519, 165121 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.165121
  217. X. Zhang, Q. Zhu, S. Wang, T. Ma, S. Gao et al., Hybrid triboelectric-variable reluctance generator assisted wireless intelligent condition monitoring of aero-engine main bearings. Nano Energy 136, 110721 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.110721
  218. X. Hou, M. Zhu, L. Sun, T. Ding, Z. Huang et al., Scalable self-attaching/assembling robotic cluster (S2A2RC) system enabled by triboelectric sensors for in-orbit spacecraft application. Nano Energy 93, 106894 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106894
  219. X. Hou, L. Xin, Y. Fu, Z. Na, G. Gao et al., A self-powered biomimetic mouse whisker sensor (BMWS) aiming at terrestrial and space objects perception. Nano Energy 118, 109034 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.109034
  220. Y. Sun, C. Li, Z. Xu, Y. Cao, H. Sheng et al., Conformable multifunctional space fabric by metal 3D printing for collision hazard protection and self-powered monitoring. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(49), 57726–57737 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c15232
  221. S. Gao, T. Ma, N. Zhou, J. Feng, H. Pu et al., Extremely compact and lightweight triboelectric nanogenerator for spacecraft flywheel system health monitoring. Nano Energy 122, 109330 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109330
  222. C. Li, Y. Zheng, X. Wang, J. Zhang, Y. Wang et al., Layered subsurface in Utopia Basin of Mars revealed by Zhurong rover radar. Nature 610(7931), 308–312 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05147-5
  223. T.G. Hoog, M.R. Pawlak, N.J. Gaut, G.C. Baxter, T.A. Bethel et al., Emergent ribozyme behaviors in oxychlorine brines indicate a unique niche for molecular evolution on Mars. Nat. Commun. 15, 3863 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48037-2
  224. K.M. Kinch, J.F. Bell III., W. Goetz, J.R. Johnson, J. Joseph et al., Dust deposition on the decks of the Mars exploration rovers: 10 years of dust dynamics on the panoramic camera calibration targets. Earth Space Sci. 2(5), 144–172 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/2014EA000073
  225. B. Chide, R.D. Lorenz, F. Montmessin, S. Maurice, Y. Parot et al., Detection of triboelectric discharges during dust events on Mars. Nature 647(8091), 865–869 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09736-y
  226. Y. Peng, L. Zhang, Z. Cai, Z. Wang, H. Jiao et al., Overview of the Mars climate station for Tianwen-1 mission. Earth Planet. Phys. 4(4), 371–383 (2020). https://doi.org/10.26464/epp2020057
  227. R. Verduci, V. Romano, G. Brunetti, N. Yaghoobi Nia, A. Di Carlo et al., Solar energy in space applications: review and technology perspectives. Adv. Energy Mater. 12(29), 2200125 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202200125
  228. R. Ali Shaukat, M.M. Rehman, M. Khan, R. Chang, C.S. Iorio et al., Triboelectric nanogenerators for future space missions. Nano-Micro Lett. 18(1), 98 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01944-5
  229. M.-L. Seol, J.-W. Han, D.-I. Moon, M. Meyyappan, Triboelectric nanogenerator for Mars environment. Nano Energy 39, 238–244 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.07.004
  230. T. Ding, X. Hou, M. Zhu, J. Zhou, Y. Liu et al., A flexible self-perceiving/repairing parachute (FSPRP) system adapted to the Martian dust storm environment. Nano Energy 99, 107358 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107358
  231. F. Yang, Z. Wang, B. Xu, Y. Lu, X. Hou et al., A soft-soft contact triboelectric nanogenerator with a ternary four-phase structure for self-powered high-efficiency dust removal on Mars. Adv. Sci. 12(27), 2502956 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202502956
  232. K. Dai, X. Wang, F. Yi, C. Jiang, R. Li et al., Triboelectric nanogenerators as self-powered acceleration sensor under high-g impact. Nano Energy 45, 84–93 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.12.022
  233. B. Chai, K. Shi, H. Zou, P. Jiang, Z. Wu et al., Conductive interlayer modulated ferroelectric nanocomposites for high performance triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano Energy 91, 106668 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106668
  234. Y. Sun, C. Li, Z. Xu, H. Sheng, Y. Wang et al., High-accuracy recognition triboelectric nanogenerator system for shooting report and ballistic analysis. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(17), 2419100 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202419100
  235. S. Wang, H. Li, L. Jia, F. Zhang, T. Zhou et al., A high-performance, high-impedance ratio, bidirectional charge transferred triboelectric nanogenerators system. Adv. Funct. Mater. (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202529059
  236. S.M. Sohel Rana, Z.L. Wang, Recent advances and prospective strategies for improving the performance of triboelectric nanogenerators. Coord. Chem. Rev. 543, 216914 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2025.216914
  237. H. Zhou, G. Liu, T. Bu, Z. Wang, J. Cao et al., Autonomous cantilever buck switch for ultra-efficient power management of triboelectric nanogenerator. Appl. Energy 357, 122475 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.122475
  238. D. Liu, C. Li, P. Chen, X. Zhao, W. Tang et al., Sustainable long-term and wide-area environment monitoring network based on distributed self-powered wireless sensing nodes. Adv. Energy Mater. 13(2), 2202691 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202202691
  239. M. Pallay, A.I. Ibrahim, R.N. Miles, S. Towfighian, Pairing electrostatic levitation with triboelectric transduction for high-performance self-powered MEMS sensors and actuators. Appl. Phys. Lett. 115(13), 133503 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5119814
  240. S.C. Chandrarathna, S.A. Graham, M. Ali, A.L.A.K. Ranaweera, M.L. Karunarathne et al., Analysis and experiment of self-powered, pulse-based energy harvester using 400 V FEP-based segmented triboelectric nanogenerators and 98.2% tracking efficient power management IC for multi-functional IoT applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(17), 2213900 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202213900
  241. K.-H. Lee, M.-G. Kim, W. Kang, H.-M. Park, Y. Cho et al., Pulse-charging energy storage for triboelectric nanogenerator based on frequency modulation. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 210 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01714-3
  242. S. Ran, Z. Wang, Q. Hou, K. Sun, B. Liu et al., Self-propagating synthesis of core-double shell structured Fe3O4@C@PANI composites for efficient microwave absorption and corrosion resistance. J. Alloys Compd. 1050, 185747 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.185747
  243. G. Zhou, Y. Ma, Y. Xin, Z. Xu, J. Zhu et al., A flexible Janus triboelectric-piezoelectric hybrid nanogenerator for efficient dust personal protection in high humidity working condition. Chem. Eng. J. 525, 169999 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.169999
  244. J.L. Armitage, A. Ghanbarzadeh, M.G. Bryant, A. Neville, Investigating the influence of friction and material wear on triboelectric charge transfer in metal–polymer contacts. Tribol. Lett. 70(2), 46 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11249-022-01588-1
  245. C. Garcia, I. Trendafilova, Triboelectric sensor as a dual system for impact monitoring and prediction of the damage in composite structures. Nano Energy 60, 527–535 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.03.070
  246. J. Wang, B. Zhang, Z. Zhao, Y. Gao, D. Liu et al., Boosting the charge density of triboelectric nanogenerator by suppressing air breakdown and dielectric charge leakage. Adv. Energy Mater. 14(8), 2303874 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202303874
  247. X. Zhang, S. Wang, L. Gong, Z. Yao, F. Guo et al., Ultra-compact single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerators for self-powered wear sensing of reciprocating sealings. Nano Energy 133, 110490 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110490
  248. S. Chen, X. Zhou, S. Zhang, Y. Liu, T. Liu et al., Advanced triboelectric aerogels: mechanisms, structures and applications. Mater. Today 93, 103219 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2026.103219
  249. X. Wen, H. Li, R. Li, H. Wang, Y. Li et al., Coral-inspired superhydrophobic triboelectric nanogenerators with unprecedented wear resistance and sub-zero temperature self-healing capability. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(31), 2501706 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202501706
  250. M. Huang, W. Liao, J. Shi, X. Huang, X. Gao et al., A miniaturized fully enclosed spherical triboelectric and electromagnetic hybrid generator for multidimensional low-frequency vibration energy harvesting. Nano Energy 142, 111281 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111281
  251. Y. Li, M. Huang, T. Tang, M. Mei, H. Zhao et al., A high-power non-contact magnetic conversion-enhanced wind energy harvester for self-powered IoT nodes and real-time wind speed sensing. Nano Energy 143, 111293 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111293
  252. H.S. Jin, J.J. Jung, K.H. Kim, S.J. Choi, S.Y. Park et al., Surface morphology engineering of triboelectric nanogenerators for performance enhancement. Chem. Eng. J. 525, 170195 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.170195
  253. K. Xu, L. Long, W. Yang, Z. Huang, H. Ye, Bionic metamaterial for multispectral-compatible camouflage of solar spectrum and infrared in the background of vegetation. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 5(2), 101798 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2024.101798
  254. H. Phan, P.N. Hoa, H.A. Tam, P.D. Thang, Q-switched pulsed laser direct writing of aluminum surface micro/nanostructure for triboelectric performance enhancement. J. Sci. Adv. Mater. Devices 6(1), 84–91 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2020.11.003
  255. D. Jaurker, P. Gupta, A. Sahu, S.S. Joshi, I.A. Palani, Investigation of laser micro-textured triboelectric nanogenerator based self-powered vibration sensor for Industry 4.0 application. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 377, 115679 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2024.115679
  256. S.M. Vahidhosseini, S. Rashidi, M.H. Ehsani, Enhancing sustainable energy harvesting with triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs): advanced materials and performance enhancement strategies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 216, 115663 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115663
  257. S. Jin, Y. Wang, M. Motlag, S. Gao, J. Xu et al., Large-area direct laser-shock imprinting of a 3D biomimic hierarchical metal surface for triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv. Mater. 30(11), 1705840 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201705840
  258. B. Liu, Z. Gao, H. Liu, Z. Yu, Z. Cheng et al., Wearable hand gesture sensors based on triboelectric nanogenerators: a fabrication method perspective. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 270, 205–219 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2026.01.037
  259. S. Peng, G. Chen, X. Luo, X. Zhang, D. Li et al., Volumetric 3D printing of ionic conductive elastomers for multifunctional flexible electronics. Addit. Manuf. 95, 104536 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2024.104536
  260. T. Islam, M.R. Repon, U.K. Salma, A. Haji, M.I. Hosen et al., A roadmap study of wearable electronic textile materials: a comprehensive review. Adv. Compos. Hybrid Mater. 8(6), 431 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42114-025-01419-6
  261. C. Fang, H.-F. Zhong, M. Liu, S. Zhang, Z.-X. Huang et al., Highly tribo-positive nylon-11 film fabricated by multiscale structural regulation through a roll-to-roll processing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(22), 29257–29266 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c05319
  262. X. Zheng, X. Dai, J. Ge, X. Yang, P. Yang et al., Self-regulating heating and self-powered flexible fiber fabrics at low temperature. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 220, 104–114 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2024.08.047
  263. Z. Zheng, X. Ma, M. Lu, H. Yin, L. Jiang et al., High-performance all-textile triboelectric nanogenerator toward intelligent sports sensing and biomechanical energy harvesting. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(8), 10746–10755 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c18558
  264. Y. Zhang, Y. Lu, J. Jin, M. Wu, H. Yuan et al., Electrolyte design for lithium-ion batteries for extreme temperature applications. Adv. Mater. 36(13), 2308484 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202308484
  265. Y. Liu, M.-Y. Su, Z.-Y. Gu, K.-Y. Zhang, X.-T. Wang et al., Advanced lithium primary batteries: key materials, research progresses and challenges. Chem. Rec. 22(10), e202200081 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/tcr.202200081
  266. N.N. Pham, R. Bloudicek, J. Leuchter, S. Rydlo, Q.H. Dong, Comparative analysis of energy storage and buffer units for electric military vehicle: survey of experimental results. Batteries 10(2), 43 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10020043
  267. K. Xi, J. Guo, M. Zheng, M. Zhu, Y. Hou, Defect engineering with rational dopants modulation for high-temperature energy harvesting in lead-free piezoceramics. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 55 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01556-5
  268. T. Liu, R. Liang, H. He, X. Cui, X. Li et al., High-temperature wireless triboelectric sensor fabricated from bioinspired porous materials. Adv. Funct. Mater. 36(11), e18525 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202518525
  269. Y. Liu, M. Shen, Y. Ye, C. Zhang, L. Chen et al., Hierarchical PBO/mica/MOF-303 composite films for tri-functional triboelectric nanogenerators: enhanced charge density, flame retardancy, and humidity resistance. Chem. Eng. J. 530, 173192 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2026.173192
  270. Y. Tao, L. Peng, Q. Yang, S. Cheng, W. Jiang et al., An extreme cold wearable self-powered energy storage technology: based on anti-freezing hydrogel triboelectric nanogenerator and dendrite-free Zn-Ion battery. Appl. Mater. Today 47, 102937 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2025.102937
  271. S. Li, C. Chen, D. Guo, H. Liu, H. Ning et al., Highly sensitive hybrid triboelectric nanogenerator with Ferris-wheel-like structure for ocean wave energy harvesting. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 8(11), 2400310 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202400310
  272. W. Zhou, L. Tuo, W. Tang, H. Wen, C. Chen et al., Four-helix triboelectric nanogenerator based on wave amplitude amplifier. Adv. Energy Mater. 15(3), 2402781 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202402781
  273. L. Tuo, W. Zhou, W. Tang, J. Li, Y. Wen et al., A geometric thrust amplifier based triboelectric nanogenerator for full-spectrum wave energy harvesting. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(51), e07697 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202507697
  274. H. Li, W. Tang, J. Li, W. Zhou, H. Wen et al., Butterfly-stacked triboelectric nanogenerator with self-adaptive platform for all-angle weak wave energy harvesting. Nano Energy 144, 111347 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111347
  275. W. Tang, H. Li, J. Li, W. Zhou, J. Duan et al., Rattle drum-inspired triboelectric nanogenerator with enhanced output using charge dispatch and magnetic repulsion pendulum. Nat. Commun. 16, 9539 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-64575-9
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF

Most read articles by the same author(s)