Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Microfluidic Spinning Boosting Thermoelectric Performance of PEDOT:PSS Nonwoven Fabrics

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02227-3
Yuhui Zhang
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Hui Qiu
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Jian Yang
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Pengle Cao
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Yu Wang
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
An‑Quan Xie
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Ke‑Qin Zhang
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
Xiao‑Qiao Wang
National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Xiao‑Qiao Wang

xqwang@suda.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 376

Abstract

Organic thermoelectric generators hold great promise for powering wearable microelectronics, yet their performance is fundamentally constrained by the trade-off between electrical conductivity (σ) and the Seebeck coefficient (S). Herein, we develop a microfluidic spinning platform to fabricate PEDOT:PSS-based nonwoven fabrics with precisely engineered micro-/nanoscale physical and electronic structures, substantially enhancing thermoelectric performance. The intense shear field and in situ coagulation within microfluidic microchannels, synergized with H2SO4 treatment, promotes axial orientation and coil-to-linear conformational transition of PEDOT chains, achieving multiscale structural ordering for highly efficient charge transport in the resulting fibers. A subsequent controlled NaOH‑mediated dedoping process finely tunes the Fermi level and modulates energy‑dependent scattering, yielding a final σ of 2038 S cm−1 and an S of 29.7 μV K−1. Such integrated modulation enables effective optimization of the classic σ-S trade-off, ultimately yielding a power factor of 179.8 μW m−1 K−2. Furthermore, by integrating the fabric with an electrospun PVDF-HFP radiative-cooling layer, we demonstrate a radiation-modulated fabric device capable of maintaining an in-plane temperature gradient (ΔT ≈ 20 K) under natural sunlight and efficiently harvesting ambient solar-thermal energy. This study provides a versatile route for the fabrication of all-organic, flexible fabrics with high-performance thermoelectric functionality for wearable energy applications.


Highlights:
1 A microfluidic spinning strategy is developed to fabricate PEDOT:PSS fibers with precisely engineered micro /nanoscale structures, effectively optimizing the trade-off between electrical conductivity and Seebeck coefficient.
2 The PEDOT:PSS fiber achieves a high conductivity of 2038 S cm−1 and a Seebeck coefficient of 29.7 μV K−1, yielding a remarkable power factor of 179.8 μW m−1 K−2 among organic thermoelectric fibers.
3 PEDOT fiber-based radiation-modulated nonwoven fabric device generates an in-plane temperature gradient of 20 K under sunlight (0.84 sun), enabling continuous solar thermoelectric energy harvesting for powering wearable microelectronics.

Keywords

PEDOT:PSS Microfluidic spinning Thermoelectric fabrics Radiative cooling Wearable electronics
Zhang, Yuhui, Hui Qiu, Jian Yang, Pengle Cao, Yu Wang, An‑Quan Xie, Ke‑Qin Zhang, and Xiao‑Qiao Wang. 2026. “Microfluidic Spinning Boosting Thermoelectric Performance of PEDOT:PSS Nonwoven Fabrics”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (May):376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02227-3.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. X.-L. Shi, L. Wang, W. Lyu, T. Cao, W. Chen et al., Advancing flexible thermoelectrics for integrated electronics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 53(18), 9254–9305 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4cs00361f
  2. L. Miao, S. Zhu, C. Liu, J. Gao, Z. Zhang et al., Comfortable wearable thermoelectric generator with high output power. Nat. Commun. 15, 8516 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52841-1
  3. Q. Yang, S. Yang, P. Qiu, L. Peng, T.-R. Wei et al., Flexible thermoelectrics based on ductile semiconductors. Science 377(6608), 854–858 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abq0682
  4. M. Burton, G. Howells, J. Atoyo, M. Carnie, Printed thermoelectrics. Adv. Mater. 34(18), 2108183 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202108183
  5. J. Gao, J. Li, L. Miao, L. Jia, P. Qiu et al., Coherent Ag-rich nanoprecipitates/β-Ag2Se flexible film with unprecedented thermoelectric performance by liquid-like sintering. Nat. Commun. 16, 6010 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-61079-4
  6. L. Zhang, X.-L. Shi, Y.-L. Yang, Z.-G. Chen, Flexible thermoelectric materials and devices: from materials to applications. Mater. Today 46, 62–108 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2021.02.016
  7. W. Jiang, J.-Z. Liu, Z. Wang, T. Li, Y. Wang et al., Wearable passive thermal management functional textiles: recent advances in personal comfort and energy harvesting applications. Adv. Fiber Mater. 7(6), 1677–1717 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42765-025-00581-2
  8. Y. Xu, B. Wu, C. Hou, Y. Li, H. Wang et al., Reconfigurable flexible thermoelectric generators based on all-inorganic MXene/Bi2Te3 composite films. FlexMat 1(3), 248–257 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/flm2.28
  9. X.-L. Shi, W.-Y. Chen, T. Zhang, J. Zou, Z.-G. Chen, Fiber-based thermoelectrics for solid, portable, and wearable electronics. Energy Environ. Sci. 14(2), 729–764 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ee03520c
  10. J. Li, X. He, J. Wang, S. Zhu, M. Zhang et al., Nanoarchitectonics of high-performance and flexible n-type organic–inorganic composite thermoelectric fibers for wearable electronics. ACS Nano 19(11), 11440–11449 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5c01168
  11. J. Tang, R. Zhu, Y.-H. Pai, Y. Zhao, C. Xu et al., Thermoelectric modulation of neat Ti3C2Tx MXenes by finely regulating the stacking of nanosheets. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 93 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01594-z
  12. Y. Hao, X. He, L. Wang, X. Qin, G. Chen et al., Stretchable thermoelectrics: strategies, performances, and applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(13), 2109790 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202109790
  13. Q. Zhu, S. Wang, X. Wang, A. Suwardi, M.H. Chua et al., Bottom-up engineering strategies for high-performance thermoelectric materials. Nano-Micro Lett. 13(1), 119 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-021-00637-z
  14. S.-J. Wang, Organic flexible thermoelectrics for thermal control. Soft Sci. 4(3), 25 (2024). https://doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.14
  15. H. Li, Z. Ding, Q. Zhou, J. Chen, Z. Liu et al., Harness high-temperature thermal energy via elastic thermoelectric aerogels. Nano-Micro Lett. 16(1), 151 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01370-z
  16. S. Tu, T. Tian, J. Zhang, S. Liang, G. Pan et al., Electrostatic tailoring of freestanding polymeric films for multifunctional thermoelectrics, hydrogels, and actuators. ACS Nano 18(51), 34829–34841 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c12502
  17. Y. Li, Y. Pang, L. Wang, Q. Li, B. Liu et al., Boosting the performance of PEDOT: PSS based electronics via ionic liquids. Adv. Mater. 36(13), 2310973 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202310973
  18. S. Chen, L. Liang, Y. Zhang, K. Lin, M. Yang et al., PEDOT: PSS-based electronic materials: preparation, performance tuning, processing, applications, and future prospect. Prog. Polym. Sci. 166, 101990 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2025.101990
  19. L. Shen, M. Liu, P. Liu, J. Xu, N. Li et al., A lamellar-ordered poly [bi(3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-alt-thienyl] for efficient tuning of thermopower without degenerated conductivity. Soft Sci. 3(2), 20 (2023). https://doi.org/10.20517/ss.2023.10
  20. Q. Xiong, G. Han, G. Wang, X. Lu, X. Zhou, The doping strategies for modulation of transport properties in thermoelectric materials. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(52), 2411304 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202411304
  21. Y. Xu, W. Sun, Z. Chen, J. Ouyang, PEDOT: PSS films with very high thermoelectric properties through water-swollen assisted reduction with a Tetrakis(dimethylamino)ethylene solution. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(52), 2410929 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202410929
  22. T. Wu, X.-L. Shi, W.-D. Liu, M. Li, F. Yue et al., High thermoelectric performance and flexibility in rationally treated PEDOT: PSS fiber bundles. Adv. Fiber Mater. 6(2), 607–618 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42765-024-00374-z
  23. H. Chen, H. Xu, M. Luo, W. Wang, X. Qing et al., Highly conductive, ultrastrong, and flexible wet-spun PEDOT: PSS/ionic liquid fibers for wearable electronics. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(16), 20346–20357 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c00155
  24. J. Ma, X. Huo, J. Yin, S. Cai, K. Pang et al., Axially encoded mechano-metafiber electronics by local strain engineering. Adv. Mater. 35(48), 2305615 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202305615
  25. J. Guo, Y. Zhang, L. Zhou, W. Hou, J. Wang et al., Microfluidic-spinning-chemistry strategy toward in-situ generation of high-performance nickel molybdate/porous graphene carbonene fiber-based supercapacitors. Adv. Energy Mater. 15(34), 2501418 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202501418
  26. P. Cao, Y. Wang, J. Yang, S. Niu, X. Pan et al., Scalable layered heterogeneous hydrogel fibers with strain-induced crystallization for tough, resilient, and highly conductive soft bioelectronics. Adv. Mater. 36(48), 2409632 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202409632
  27. H. Qiu, X. Qu, Y. Zhang, S. Chen, Y. Shen, Robust PANI@MXene/GQDs-based fiber fabric electrodes via microfluidic wet-fusing spinning chemistry. Adv. Mater. 35(38), 2302326 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202302326
  28. Y. He, S. Guo, L. Qu, X. Zhang, T. Fan et al., Oriented assembly and bridging of 2D nanosheets enabled high-performance MXene composite fiber via dual-spatially confined spinning. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(33), 2419923 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202419923
  29. C.-H. Wang, H. Chen, Z.-Y. Jiang, X.-X. Zhang, Design and experimental validation of an all-day passive thermoelectric system via radiative cooling and greenhouse effects. Energy 263, 125735 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125735
  30. C.-H. Wang, H. Chen, Z.-Y. Jiang, X.-X. Zhang, F.-Q. Wang, Modelling and performance evaluation of a novel passive thermoelectric system based on radiative cooling and solar heating for 24-hour power-generation. Appl. Energy 331, 120425 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120425
  31. S. Zhu, L. Miao, J. Gao, J.-L. Chen, Q. Zhou et al., Wearable thermoelectric generator integrated with photothermal and radiative cooling for multi-environment compatibility. Nano Energy 144, 111328 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111328
  32. M. Hou, H. Chen, S. Li, X. Zhang, J. Chen et al., A tri-mode photothermal, phase-change, and radiative-cooling film for all-day thermoelectric generation. Adv. Mater. 37(39), 2505601 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202505601
  33. H. Chen, X. Liu, J. Liu, F. Wang, C. Wang, Radiative cooling applications toward enhanced energy efficiency: system designs, achievements, and perspectives. Innovation 6(10), 100999 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2025.100999
  34. P. Wang, H. Zeng, J. Zhu, Q. Gao, Micro-supercapacitors based on ultra-fine PEDOT: PSS fibers prepared via wet-spinning. Chem. Eng. J. 484, 149676 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.149676
  35. X. He, C. Wu, T. Zhang, Z. Chen, L. Wang et al., Ultrahigh thermoelectric properties of PEDOT: PSS films by dedoping and π-π overlapping with 4-(1, 3-dimethyl-2, 3-dihydro-1H-benzoimidazol-2-yl)phenyl)dimethylamine (N-DMBI). Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(43), 2506872 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202506872
  36. C.-A. Li, C. Shan, D. Luo, X. Gu, Q. Le et al., Great enhancement in the Seebeck coefficient of PEDOT: PSS by polaron level splitting via π–π overlapping with nonpolar small aromatic molecules. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(9), 2311578 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202311578
  37. J. Chong, C. Sung, K.S. Nam, T. Kang, H. Kim et al., Highly conductive tissue-like hydrogel interface through template-directed assembly. Nat. Commun. 14, 2206 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37948-1
  38. H. Shi, C. Liu, Q. Jiang, J. Xu, Effective approaches to improve the electrical conductivity of PEDOT: PSS: a review. Adv. Electron. Mater. 1(4), 1500017 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/aelm.201500017
  39. Y. Jiang, Z. Zhang, Y.-X. Wang, D. Li, C.-T. Coen et al., Topological supramolecular network enabled high-conductivity, stretchable organic bioelectronics. Science 375(6587), 1411–1417 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abj7564
  40. P. Alarcon-Espejo, R. Sarabia-Riquelme, G.M. Matrone, M. Shahi, S. Mahmoudi et al., High-hole-mobility fiber organic electrochemical transistors for next-generation adaptive neuromorphic bio-hybrid technologies. Adv. Mater. 36(11), 2305371 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202305371
  41. S. Xu, M. Hong, X.-L. Shi, Y. Wang, L. Ge et al., High-performance PEDOT: PSS flexible thermoelectric materials and their devices by triple post-treatments. Chem. Mater. 31(14), 5238–5244 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b01500
  42. H.W. Kim, J. Kim, J.Y. Kim, K. Kim, J.Y. Lee et al., Transparent, metal-free PEDOT: PSS neural interfaces for simultaneous recording of low-noise electrophysiology and artifact-free two-photon imaging. Nat. Commun. 16, 4032 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-59303-2
  43. Y. Xia, J. Ouyang, Salt-induced charge screening and significant conductivity enhancement of conducting poly(3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene): poly(styrenesulfonate). Macromolecules 42(12), 4141–4147 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1021/ma900327d
  44. Y.-Y. Deng, X.-L. Shi, T. Wu, Y. Yue, W.-D. Liu et al., Optimization of wet-spun PEDOT: PSS fibers for thermoelectric applications through innovative triple post-treatments. Adv. Fiber Mater. 6(5), 1616–1628 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42765-024-00441-5
  45. Y. Wang, X. Wang, M. Yu, Z. Sun, R. Liu et al., Vitamin C secondary-doped poly(3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene): poly(styrene sulfonate) for enhancing conductivity and biocompatibility for implantation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(42), 2503153 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202503153
  46. J. Ouyang, C.W. Chu, F.C. Chen, Q. Xu, Y. Yang, High-conductivity poly(3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene): poly(styrene sulfonate) film and its application in polymer optoelectronic devices. Adv. Funct. Mater. 15(2), 203–208 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200400016
  47. N. Wen, Z. Fan, S. Yang, Y. Zhao, T. Cong et al., Highly conductive, ultra-flexible and continuously processable PEDOT: PSS fibers with high thermoelectric properties for wearable energy harvesting. Nano Energy 78, 105361 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105361
  48. Z. Fan, P. Li, D. Du, J. Ouyang, Significantly enhanced thermoelectric properties of PEDOT: PSS films through sequential post-treatments with common acids and bases. Adv. Energy Mater. 7(8), 1602116 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201602116
  49. M. Zeng, J. Ding, Y. Tian, Y. Zhang, X. Liu et al., Semipermeable membrane-mediated hydrogen bonding interface for fabricating high-performance pure PEDOT: PSS hydrogels. Adv. Mater. 37(32), 2505635 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202505635
  50. J. Dong, J. Liu, X. Qiu, R. Chiechi, L.J.A. Koster et al., Engineering the thermoelectrical properties of PEDOT: PSS by alkali metal ion effect. Engineering 7(5), 647–654 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2021.02.011
  51. P.S. Floris, C. Melis, R. Rurali, Interplay between doping, morphology, and lattice thermal conductivity in PEDOT: PSS. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(27), 2215125 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202215125
  52. G.-H. Kim, L. Shao, K. Zhang, K.P. Pipe, Engineered doping of organic semiconductors for enhanced thermoelectric efficiency. Nat. Mater. 12(8), 719–723 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat3635
  53. L. Liu, J. Chen, L. Liang, L. Deng, G. Chen, A PEDOT: PSS thermoelectric fiber generator. Nano Energy 102, 107678 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107678
  54. Y.-Y. Deng, X.-L. Shi, T. Wu, H. Wu, Y.-M. Liu et al., High-performance thermoelectric PEDOT: PSS fiber bundles via rational ionic liquid treatment. Chem. Eng. J. 502, 158104 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.158104
  55. S. Tu, T. Tian, A.L. Oechsle, S. Yin, X. Jiang et al., Improvement of the thermoelectric properties of PEDOT: PSS films via DMSO addition and DMSO/salt post-treatment resolved from a fundamental view. Chem. Eng. J. 429, 132295 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.132295
  56. J.H. Song, J. Park, S.H. Kim, J. Kwak, Vitamin C-induced enhanced performance of PEDOT: PSS thin films for eco-friendly transient thermoelectrics. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15(2), 2852–2860 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c17263
  57. M. Du, X. Chen, K. Zhang, Origins of enhanced thermoelectric transport in free-standing PEDOT nanowires film modulated with ionic liquid. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 4(4), 4070–4080 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.1c00422
  58. Y.H. Kang, S.-J. Ko, M.-H. Lee, Y.K. Lee, B.J. Kim et al., Highly efficient and air stable thermoelectric devices of poly(3-hexylthiophene) by dual doping of Au metal precursors. Nano Energy 82, 105681 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105681
  59. A.-Q. Xie, H. Qiu, W. Jiang, Y. Wang, S. Niu et al., Recent advances in spectrally selective daytime radiative cooling materials. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 264 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-025-01771-8
  60. D. Zhao, A. Aili, Y. Zhai, J. Lu, D. Kidd et al., Subambient cooling of water: toward real-world applications of daytime radiative cooling. Joule 3(1), 111–123 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.10.006
  61. Z. Wang, S. Pian, Y. Zhang, Y. Ma, Fundamental concepts, design rules and potentials in radiative cooling. Rep. Prog. Phys. 88(4), 045901 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6633/adc69d
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF SUPPLEMENTARY FILE

Most read articles by the same author(s)

1 2 > >>