Issue

Vol. 18 (2026)

Polymer-Based Flexible Wireless Sensors for Health Monitoring

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02233-5
Heyuan Huang
School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
Gang Xue
School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
Jianning Zhan
Queen Mary University of London Engineering School, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
Yu Yang
School of Civil Aviation, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
Ben Jia
School of Civil Aviation, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
Zhicheng Dong
School of Civil Aviation, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
Zexing Deng
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, People’s Republic of China
Xin Zhao
State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China

Corresponding Author: Xin Zhao

zhaoxinbio@mail.xjtu.edu.cn

Nano-Micro Letters, Vol. 18 (2026), Article Number: 398

Abstract

Polymer-based flexible wireless sensors have demonstrated significant potential in health monitoring. However, existing studies have predominantly focused on material design, energy harvesting, and wireless communication, while research addressing signal attenuation, noise accumulation, and data distortion within wireless links remains relatively limited. Physiological signals are highly susceptible to multi-source interference during acquisition and transmission; without effective data processing and intelligent analysis strategies, monitoring outcomes may fail to meet the accuracy and stability requirements of clinical applications. To address this research gap, this review constructs a comprehensive framework encompassing signal sensing, link transmission, and intelligent processing, building on advances in flexible materials and wireless energy supply modes. Special attention is given to the critical roles of channel compensation, noise suppression, feature extraction, lightweight artificial intelligence models, and edge computing in enhancing data quality and reducing energy consumption. Furthermore, the review systematically analyzes the impact of wireless link stability and energy management on monitoring performance. By reinforcing the synergistic mechanisms between data processing and communication, this work aims to provide design principles and development directions for the next generation of high-reliability, low-power, and intelligent wireless flexible health monitoring systems.


Highlights:
1 A system-level review of polymer-based flexible wireless sensors for epidermal, subcutaneous, and short-term implantable health monitoring is presented, elucidating the coupling among materials, interfaces, and wireless links.
2 Materials design and application studies are systematically integrated to clarify how different material systems influence sensing performance, signal stability, and monitoring reliability.
3 Key challenges and future trends are summarized, with emphasis on mitigating material-level noise, high sensitivity, multifunctional integration, and clinical translation potential.

Keywords

Flexible sensors In vivo continuous monitoring Data processing Low-power wireless communication System robustness
Huang, Heyuan, Gang Xue, Jianning Zhan, Yu Yang, Ben Jia, Zhicheng Dong, Zexing Deng, and Xin Zhao. 2026. “Polymer-Based Flexible Wireless Sensors for Health Monitoring”. Nano-Micro Letters 18 (June):398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-026-02233-5.
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
BibTeX
References
  1. W. Yue, Y. Guo, J.-C. Lee, E. Ganbold, J.-K. Wu et al., Advancements in passive wireless sensing systems in monitoring harsh environment and healthcare applications. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 106 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01599-8
  2. Y. Luo, M.R. Abidian, J.-H. Ahn, D. Akinwande, A.M. Andrews et al., Technology roadmap for flexible sensors. ACS Nano 17(6), 5211–5295 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c12606
  3. H.-R. Lim, H.S. Kim, R. Qazi, Y.-T. Kwon, J.-W. Jeong et al., Advanced soft materials, sensor integrations, and applications of wearable flexible hybrid electronics in healthcare, energy, and environment. Adv. Mater. 32(15), e1901924 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201901924
  4. B. Mohan, Virender, R.K. Gupta, A.J.L. Pombeiro, A.A. Solovev et al., Advancements in metal-organic, enzymatic, and nanocomposite platforms for wireless sensors of the next generation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(45), 2405231 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202405231
  5. S. Pyo, J. Lee, K. Bae, S. Sim, J. Kim, Recent progress in flexible tactile sensors for human-interactive systems: from sensors to advanced applications. Adv. Mater. 33(47), 2170373 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202170373
  6. S. Jiang, X. Liu, J. Liu, D. Ye, Y. Duan et al., Flexible metamaterial electronics. Adv. Mater. 34(52), 2200070 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202200070
  7. S. Yao, P. Ren, R. Song, Y. Liu, Q. Huang et al., Nanomaterial-enabled flexible and stretchable sensing systems: processing, integration, and applications. Adv. Mater. 32(15), 1902343 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201902343
  8. Y. Guo, X. Wei, S. Gao, W. Yue, Y. Li et al., Recent advances in carbon material-based multifunctional sensors and their applications in electronic skin systems. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(40), 2104288 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202104288
  9. S. Olenik, H.S. Lee, F. Güder, The future of near-field communication-based wireless sensing. Nat. Rev. Mater. 6(4), 286–288 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00299-8
  10. Z. Shen, F. Liu, S. Huang, H. Wang, C. Yang et al., Progress of flexible strain sensors for physiological signal monitoring. Biosens. Bioelectron. 211, 114298 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2022.114298
  11. W.-D. Li, K. Ke, J. Jia, J.-H. Pu, X. Zhao et al., Recent advances in multiresponsive flexible sensors towards E-skin: a delicate design for versatile sensing. Small 18(7), 2103734 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202103734
  12. F. Gao, C. Liu, L. Zhang, T. Liu, Z. Wang et al., Wearable and flexible electrochemical sensors for sweat analysis: a review. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 9, 1 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-022-00443-6
  13. J. Yan, A. Chen, S. Liu, Flexible sensing platform based on polymer materials for health and exercise monitoring. Alex. Eng. J. 86, 405–414 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.11.085
  14. Y. Liu, H. Wang, W. Zhao, M. Zhang, H. Qin et al., Flexible, stretchable sensors for wearable health monitoring: sensing mechanisms, materials, fabrication strategies and features. Sensors 18(2), 645 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/s18020645
  15. L. Kong, W. Li, T. Zhang, H. Ma, Y. Cao et al., Wireless technologies in flexible and wearable sensing: from materials design, system integration to applications. Adv. Mater. 36(27), 2400333 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202400333
  16. I. Thaveesangsakulthai, J. Jongkhumkrong, K. Chatdarong, P. Torvorapanit, W. Sukbangnop et al., A fluorescence-based sweat test sensor in a proof-of-concept clinical study for COVID-19 screening diagnosis. Analyst 148(13), 2956–2964 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/D3AN00429E
  17. H. Jinno, T. Yokota, M. Koizumi, W. Yukita, M. Saito et al., Self-powered ultraflexible photonic skin for continuous bio-signal detection via air-operation-stable polymer light-emitting diodes. Nat. Commun. 12, 2234 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22558-6
  18. P. Escobedo, M.D. Fernández-Ramos, N. López-Ruiz, O. Moyano-Rodríguez, A. Martínez-Olmos et al., Smart facemask for wireless CO2 monitoring. Nat. Commun. 13(1), 72 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27733-3
  19. K. Zhang, J. Zhang, F. Wang, D. Kong, Stretchable and superwettable colorimetric sensing patch for epidermal collection and analysis of sweat. ACS Sens. 6(6), 2261–2269 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.1c00316
  20. D. Wu, A.C. Sedgwick, T. Gunnlaugsson, E.U. Akkaya, J. Yoon et al., Fluorescent chemosensors: the past, present and future. Chem. Soc. Rev. 46(23), 7105–7123 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1039/c7cs00240h
  21. H.R. Na, H.J. Lee, J.H. Jeon, H.-J. Kim, S.-K. Jerng et al., Vertical graphene on flexible substrate, overcoming limits of crack-based resistive strain sensors. npj Flex. Electron. 6, 2 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-022-00135-1
  22. R. Herbert, H.-R. Lim, B. Rigo, W.-H. Yeo, Fully implantable wireless batteryless vascular electronics with printed soft sensors for multiplex sensing of hemodynamics. Sci. Adv. 8(19), eabm1175 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abm1175
  23. X. Pei, H. Zhang, Y. Zhou, L. Zhou, J. Fu, Stretchable, self-healing and tissue-adhesive zwitterionic hydrogels as strain sensors for wireless monitoring of organ motions. Mater. Horiz. 7(7), 1872–1882 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0mh00361a
  24. W. Zhou, Z. Chen, X. Yuan, H. Yu, Y. Zhang et al., Self-powered wireless piezoelectric sensor based on polyamide elastomer/BaTiO3 for machine learning-assisted human motion monitoring. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 17(41), 57500–57515 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5c12234
  25. X. Xie, Q. Wang, C. Zhao, Q. Sun, H. Gu et al., Neuromorphic computing-assisted triboelectric capacitive-coupled tactile sensor array for wireless mixed reality interaction. ACS Nano 18(26), 17041–17052 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c03554
  26. D.-H. Kim, N. Lu, R. Ma, Y.-S. Kim, R.-H. Kim et al., Epidermal electronics. Science 333(6044), 838–843 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1206157
  27. J. Song, H. Liu, Z. Zhao, P. Lin, F. Yan, Flexible organic transistors for biosensing: devices and applications. Adv. Mater. 36(20), 2300034 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202300034
  28. Y. Yoon, P.L. Truong, D. Lee, S.H. Ko, Metal-oxide nanomaterials synthesis and applications in flexible and wearable sensors. ACS Nanosci. Au 2(2), 64–92 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnanoscienceau.1c00029
  29. R. Singh, R. Gupta, D. Bansal, R. Bhateria, M. Sharma, A review on recent trends and future developments in electrochemical sensing. ACS Omega 9(7), 7336–7356 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c08060
  30. R. Li, H. Qi, Y. Ma, Y. Deng, S. Liu et al., A flexible and physically transient electrochemical sensor for real-time wireless nitric oxide monitoring. Nat. Commun. 11, 3207 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17008-8
  31. Z. Xiong, S. Achavananthadith, S. Lian, L.E. Madden, Z.X. Ong et al., A wireless and battery-free wound infection sensor based on DNA hydrogel. Sci. Adv. 7(47), eabj1617 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abj1617
  32. Y. Liu, X. Huang, J. Zhou, C.K. Yiu, Z. Song et al., Stretchable sweat-activated battery in skin-integrated electronics for continuous wireless sweat monitoring. Adv. Sci. 9(9), 2104635 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202104635
  33. J. Tu, J. Min, Y. Song, C. Xu, J. Li et al., A wireless patch for the monitoring of C-reactive protein in sweat. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7(10), 1293–1306 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41551-023-01059-5
  34. S. Li, P. Cao, F. Li, W. Asghar, Y. Wu et al., Self-powered stretchable strain sensors for motion monitoring and wireless control. Nano Energy 92, 106754 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106754
  35. J. Shu, J. Wang, Y. Su, M. Liu, Y. Li et al., Magnetoelastic sensing: a study of flexible magnetoelastic strain sensors for highly deformed posture perception. Adv. Mater. Technol. 10(12), 2401496 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202401496
  36. Q. Zhang, G. Yang, L. Xue, G. Dong, W. Su et al., Ultrasoft and biocompatible magnetic-hydrogel-based strain sensors for wireless passive biomechanical monitoring. ACS Nano 16(12), 21555–21564 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c10404
  37. J. Han, X. Dong, Z. Yin, S. Zhang, M. Li et al., Actuation-enhanced multifunctional sensing and information recognition by magnetic artificial cilia arrays. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 120(42), 1–12 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2308301120
  38. P.G. Saiz, R. Fernández de Luis, A. Lasheras, M.I. Arriortua, A.C. Lopes, Magnetoelastic resonance sensors: principles, applications, and perspectives. ACS Sens. 7(5), 1248–1268 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.2c00032
  39. H. Yu, Z. Hu, J. He, Y. Ran, Y. Zhao et al., Flexible temperature-pressure dual sensor based on 3D spiral thermoelectric Bi2Te3 films. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 2521 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46836-1
  40. R. Baines, F. Zuliani, N. Chennoufi, S. Joshi, R. Kramer-Bottiglio et al., Multi-modal deformation and temperature sensing for context-sensitive machines. Nat. Commun. 14, 7499 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-42655-y
  41. F.-L. Gao, J. Liu, X.-P. Li, Q. Ma, T. Zhang et al., Ti3 C2 T x MXene-based multifunctional tactile sensors for precisely detecting and distinguishing temperature and pressure stimuli. ACS Nano 17(16), 16036–16047 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.3c04650
  42. B. Dai, C. Zhou, R. Kong, R. Zhuang, W. Song et al., Flexible dual-functional sensor for real-time glucose monitoring and pulse signal tracking. Nano Energy 148, 111630 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111630
  43. Z. Zhang, K. Li, Y. Li, Q. Zhang, H. Wang et al., Dual-function wearable hydrogel optical fiber for monitoring posture and sweat pH. ACS Sens. 9(6), 3413–3422 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.4c00780
  44. L. Su, Z. Jiang, Z. Tian, H. Wang, H. Wang et al., Self-powered, ultrasensitive, and high-resolution visualized flexible pressure sensor based on color-tunable triboelectrification-induced electroluminescence. Nano Energy 79, 105431 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105431
  45. L. Ma, R. Wu, A. Patil, S. Zhu, Z. Meng et al., Full-textile wireless flexible humidity sensor for human physiological monitoring. Adv. Funct. Mater. 29(43), 1904549 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201904549
  46. A. Beniwal, P. Ganguly, A.K. Aliyana, G. Khandelwal, R. Dahiya, Screen-printed graphene-carbon ink based disposable humidity sensor with wireless communication. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 374, 132731 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2022.132731
  47. N. Li, Y. Zhou, Y. Li, C. Li, W. Xiang et al., Transformable 3D curved high-density liquid metal coils–an integrated unit for general soft actuation, sensing and communication. Nat. Commun. 15, 7679 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51648-4
  48. W. Yue, Y. Guo, J.-K. Wu, E. Ganbold, N.K. Kaushik et al., A wireless, battery-free microneedle patch with light-cured swellable hydrogel for minimally-invasive glucose detection. Nano Energy 131, 110194 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110194
  49. X. Yang, J. Yi, T. Wang, Y. Feng, J. Wang et al., Wet-adhesive on-skin sensors based on metal–organic frameworks for wireless monitoring of metabolites in sweat. Adv. Mater. 34(44), 2201768 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202201768
  50. T. Saha, T. Songkakul, C.T. Knisely, M.A. Yokus, M.A. Daniele et al., Wireless wearable electrochemical sensing platform with zero-power osmotic sweat extraction for continuous lactate monitoring. ACS Sens. 7(7), 2037–2048 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.2c00830
  51. Y. Zhou, X. Zhao, J. Xu, Y. Fang, G. Chen et al., Giant magnetoelastic effect in soft systems for bioelectronics. Nat. Mater. 20(12), 1670–1676 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-021-01093-1
  52. X. Zhao, Y. Zhou, J. Xu, G. Chen, Y. Fang et al., Soft fibers with magnetoelasticity for wearable electronics. Nat. Commun. 12, 6755 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27066-1
  53. A. Lazaro, R. Villarino, M. Lazaro, N. Canellas, B. Prieto-Simon et al., Recent advances in batteryless NFC sensors for chemical sensing and biosensing. Biosensors 13(8), 775 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13080775
  54. X. Sun, C. Zhao, H. Li, H. Yu, J. Zhang et al., Wearable near-field communication sensors for healthcare: materials, fabrication and application. Micromachines 13(5), 784 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13050784
  55. Y.S. Oh, J.-H. Kim, Z. Xie, S. Cho, H. Han et al., Battery-free, wireless soft sensors for continuous multi-site measurements of pressure and temperature from patients at risk for pressure injuries. Nat. Commun. 12(1), 5008 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25324-w
  56. D.-Y. Chen, L. Dong, Q.-A. Huang, Inductor-capacitor passive wireless sensors using nonlinear parity-time symmetric configurations. Nat. Commun. 15(1), 9312 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53655-x
  57. M. Zulqarnain, S. Stanzione, G. Rathinavel, S. Smout, M. Willegems et al., A flexible ECG patch compatible with NFC RF communication. npj Flex. Electron. 4, 13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-020-0077-x
  58. P. Escobedo, M. Bhattacharjee, F. Nikbakhtnasrabadi, R. Dahiya, Flexible strain and temperature sensing NFC tag for smart food packaging applications. IEEE Sens. J. 21(23), 26406–26414 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2021.3100876
  59. Y. Lee, C. Howe, S. Mishra, D.S. Lee, M. Mahmood et al., Wireless, intraoral hybrid electronics for real-time quantification of sodium intake toward hypertension management. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 115(21), 5377–5382 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1719573115
  60. A. Pal, V.G. Nadiger, D. Goswami, R.V. Martinez, Conformal, waterproof electronic decals for wireless monitoring of sweat and vaginal pH at the point-of-care. Biosens. Bioelectron. 160, 112206 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2020.112206
  61. T. Nusrat, S. Roy, A.A. Lotfi-Neyestanak, S. Noghanian, Far-field wireless power transfer for the Internet of Things. Electronics 12(1), 207 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12010207
  62. H. Zhang, J. Zhang, Z. Hu, L. Quan, L. Shi et al., Waist-wearable wireless respiration sensor based on triboelectric effect. Nano Energy 59, 75–83 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.01.063
  63. W. Gao, S. Emaminejad, H.Y.Y. Nyein, S. Challa, K. Chen et al., Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis. Nature 529(7587), 509–514 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16521
  64. Y. Jin, M. Yu, D.T. Nguyen, X. Yang, Z. Li et al., Digitally-defined ultrathin transparent wireless sensor network for room-scale imperceptible ambient intelligence. npj Flex. Electron. 8, 10 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-024-00293-4
  65. M. Wagih, Y. Wei, A. Komolafe, R. Torah, S. Beeby, Reliable UHF long-range textile-integrated RFID tag based on a compact flexible antenna filament. Sensors 20(12), 3435 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/s20123435
  66. J. Nam, E. Byun, H. Shim, E. Kim, S. Islam et al., A hydrogel-based ultrasonic backscattering wireless biochemical sensing. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 8, 596370 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.596370
  67. P. Jin, J. Fu, F. Wang, Y. Zhang, P. Wang et al., A flexible, stretchable system for simultaneous acoustic energy transfer and communication. Sci. Adv. 7(40), eabg2507 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abg2507
  68. M. Wang, L. Jia, X. Jia, H. Li, X. Feng, Flexible circuit-free system via passive modulated ultrasound for wireless thoracic pressure monitoring. Sci. Adv. 11(8), eads5634 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads5634
  69. X. Liu, H. Tang, N. Li, L. He, Y. Tian et al., Miniature magneto-ultrasonic machines for wireless robotic sensing and manipulation. Sci. Robot. 10(106), eadu4851 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.adu4851
  70. S. Lee, Q. Shi, C. Lee, From flexible electronics technology in the era of IoT and artificial intelligence toward future implanted body sensor networks. APL Mater. 7(3), 031302 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5063498
  71. C. Cheng, X. Li, G. Xu, Y. Lu, S.S. Low et al., Battery-free, wireless, and flexible electrochemical patch for in situ analysis of sweat cortisol via near field communication. Biosens. Bioelectron. 172, 112782 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2020.112782
  72. S. Afroj, N. Karim, Z. Wang, S. Tan, P. He et al., Engineering graphene flakes for wearable textile sensors via highly scalable and ultrafast yarn dyeing technique. ACS Nano 13(4), 3847–3857 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.9b00319
  73. J. Lin, X. Chen, P. Zhang, Y. Xue, Y. Feng et al., Wireless bioelectronics for in vivo pressure monitoring with mechanically-compliant hydrogel biointerfaces (adv. mater. 26/2024). Adv. Mater. 36(26), 2470202 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202470202
  74. P. Sahatiya, A. Kadu, H. Gupta, P. Thanga Gomathi, S. Badhulika, Flexible, disposable cellulose-paper-based MoS2/Cu2S hybrid for wireless environmental monitoring and multifunctional sensing of chemical stimuli. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10(10), 9048–9059 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b00245
  75. T.T. Hoang, A.M. Cunio, S. Zhao, T.-V. Nguyen, S. Peng et al., Flexible, wearable mechano-acoustic sensors for real-time, wireless monitoring of low frequency body sounds. Adv. Sens. Res. 3(10), 2400039 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adsr.202400039
  76. C.L. Baumbauer, M.G. Anderson, J. Ting, A. Sreekumar, J.M. Rabaey et al., Printed, flexible, compact UHF-RFID sensor tags enabled by hybrid electronics. Sci. Rep. 10(1), 16543 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73471-9
  77. X. Wang, L. Xing, H. Wang, A wearable textile antenna for LoRa applications. 2021 IEEE 4th International Conference on Electronic Information and Communication Technology (ICEICT), Xi’an, China, 18–20 August 2021. IEEE, 613–615 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/iceict53123.2021.9531121
  78. J.-L. Zhan, W.-B. Lu, C. Ding, Z. Sun, B.-Y. Yu et al., Flexible and wearable battery-free backscatter wireless communication system for colour imaging. npj Flex. Electron. 8, 19 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-024-00304-4
  79. C. Sun, S. Si, J. Liu, Y. Xia, Z. Lin et al., Flexible, ultra-wideband acoustic device for ultrasound energy harvesting and passive wireless sensing. Nano Energy 112, 108430 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108430
  80. B. Tao, E. Sie, J. Shenoy, D. Vasisht, Magnetic backscatter for in-body communication and localization. Proceedings of the 29th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking. Madrid Spain. ACM, 1–15 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1145/3570361.3613301
  81. G.E. Santagati, T. Melodia, U-wear: software-defined ultrasonic networking for wearable devices. Proceedings of the 13th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services. Florence Italy. ACM, 241–256 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1145/2742647.2742655
  82. S.M.A. Huda, M.Y. Arafat, S. Moh, Wireless power transfer in wirelessly powered sensor networks: a review of recent progress. Sensors 22(8), 2952 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/s22082952
  83. K. Kwon, J.U. Kim, S.M. Won, J. Zhao, R. Avila et al., A battery-less wireless implant for the continuous monitoring of vascular pressure, flow rate and temperature. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 7(10), 1215–1228 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41551-023-01022-4
  84. R. Lin, H.-J. Kim, S. Achavananthadith, S.A. Kurt, S.C.C. Tan et al., Wireless battery-free body sensor networks using near-field-enabled clothing. Nat. Commun. 11(1), 444 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14311-2
  85. J. Lee, H.R. Cho, G.D. Cha, H. Seo, S. Lee et al., Flexible, sticky, and biodegradable wireless device for drug delivery to brain tumors. Nat. Commun. 10, 5205 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13198-y
  86. X. Zhang, J. Grajal, J.L. Vazquez-Roy, U. Radhakrishna, X. Wang et al., Two-dimensional MoS2-enabled flexible rectenna for Wi-Fi-band wireless energy harvesting. Nature 566(7744), 368–372 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-0892-1
  87. W. Zhao, H. Ni, C. Ding, L. Liu, Q. Fu et al., 2D Titanium carbide printed flexible ultrawideband monopole antenna for wireless communications. Nat. Commun. 14(1), 278 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-35371-6
  88. Q. Yi, X. Pei, P. Das, H. Qin, S.W. Lee et al., A self-powered triboelectric MXene-based 3D-printed wearable physiological biosignal sensing system for on-demand, wireless, and real-time health monitoring. Nano Energy 101, 107511 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107511
  89. Z. Wu, H. Wang, Q. Ding, K. Tao, W. Shi et al., A self-powered, rechargeable, and wearable hydrogel patch for wireless gas detection with extraordinary performance. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33(21), 2300046 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202300046
  90. R. Fu, X. Zhong, C. Xiao, J. Lin, Y. Guan et al., A stretchable, biocompatible, and self-powered hydrogel multichannel wireless sensor system based on piezoelectric barium titanate nanops for health monitoring. Nano Energy 114, 108617 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108617
  91. H. Li, T. Chang, Y. Gai, K. Liang, Y. Jiao et al., Human joint enabled flexible self-sustainable sweat sensors. Nano Energy 92, 106786 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106786
  92. E.M. Ali, M. Alibakhshikenari, B.S. Virdee, M. Soruri, E. Limiti, Efficient wireless power transfer via magnetic resonance coupling using automated impedance matching circuit. Electronics 10(22), 2779 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10222779
  93. H. Zhu, H. Yang, L. Zhan, Y. Chen, J. Wang et al., Hydrogel-based smart contact lens for highly sensitive wireless intraocular pressure monitoring. ACS Sens. 7(10), 3014–3022 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.2c01299
  94. C. Degen, Inductive coupling for wireless power transfer and near-field communication. EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw. 2021(1), 121 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13638-021-01994-4
  95. T. Campi, S. Cruciani, V. De Santis, F. Maradei, M. Feliziani, Near field wireless powering of deep medical implants. Energies 12(14), 2720 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/en12142720
  96. X. Sun, J. Zhang, W. Wang, D. He, A wearable dual-band magnetoelectric dipole rectenna for radio frequency energy harvesting. Electronics 14(7), 1314 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14071314
  97. Y. Liao, S. Tian, Y. Li, L. Li, X. Chen et al., Ambient nano RF-energy driven self-powered wearable multimodal real-time health monitoring. Nano Energy 128, 109915 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109915
  98. T.-H. Lin, W. Su, Y. Cui, R. Bahr, M.M. Tentzeris, Battery-less long-range wireless fluidic sensing system using flexible additive manufacturing ambient energy harvester and microfluidics. Sci. Rep. 14, 17787 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68616-z
  99. N. Atanasov, B. Atanasov, G. Atanasova, Flexible rectenna on an eco-friendly substrate for application in next-generation IoT devices. Appl. Sci. 15(11), 6303 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/app15116303
  100. N. Singh, T. Khan, S. Kumar, B.K. Kanaujia, H.C. Choi et al., Ultra-thin flexible rectenna integrated with power management unit for wireless power harvester/charging of smartwatch/wristband. Sci. Rep. 14, 7447 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-57639-1
  101. M. He, W. Du, Y. Feng, S. Li, W. Wang et al., Flexible and stretchable triboelectric nanogenerator fabric for biomechanical energy harvesting and self-powered dual-mode human motion monitoring. Nano Energy 86, 106058 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106058
  102. W. Dong, M. Li, C. Chen, K. Xie, J. Hong et al., Flexible hybrid self-powered piezo-triboelectric nanogenerator based on BTO-PVDF/PDMS nanocomposites for human machine interaction. Sci. Rep. 15, 15991 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-00686-z
  103. M. Sattar, Y.J. Lee, H. Kim, M. Adams, M. Guess et al., Flexible thermoelectric wearable architecture for wireless continuous physiological monitoring. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(29), 37401–37417 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c02467
  104. X. He, X.-L. Shi, X. Wu, C. Li, W.-D. Liu et al., Three-dimensional flexible thermoelectric fabrics for smart wearables. Nat. Commun. 16(1), 2523 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-57889-1
  105. Z. Liu, J. Kong, M. Qu, G. Zhao, C. Zhang, Progress in data acquisition of wearable sensors. Biosensors 12(10), 889 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/bios12100889
  106. S. Zhang, M.A. Zahed, M. Sharifuzzaman, S. Yoon, X. Hui et al., A wearable battery-free wireless and skin-interfaced microfluidics integrated electrochemical sensing patch for on-site biomarkers monitoring in human perspiration. Biosens. Bioelectron. 175, 112844 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2020.112844
  107. A. Kumar, R. Komaragiri, M. Kumar, Design of wavelet transform based electrocardiogram monitoring system. ISA Trans. 80, 381–398 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isatra.2018.08.003
  108. Y. Zhang, R. Wang, S. Li, S. Qi, Temperature sensor denoising algorithm based on curve fitting and compound Kalman filtering. Sensors 20(7), 1959 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/s20071959
  109. H. Hu, C. Zhang, C. Pan, H. Dai, H. Sun et al., Wireless flexible magnetic tactile sensor with super-resolution in large-areas. ACS Nano 16(11), 19271–19280 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.2c08664
  110. C. Ma, D. Xu, Y.-C. Huang, P. Wang, J. Huang et al., Robust flexible pressure sensors made from conductive micropyramids for manipulation tasks. ACS Nano 14(10), 12866–12876 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c03659
  111. H.S. Wang, S.K. Hong, J.H. Han, Y.H. Jung, H.K. Jeong et al., Biomimetic and flexible piezoelectric mobile acoustic sensors with multiresonant ultrathin structures for machine learning biometrics. Sci. Adv. 7(7), eabe5683 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abe5683
  112. X. Zhang, Y. Wang, L. Zhang, X. Zhang, Y. Guo et al., Facile preparation of porous MXene/cellulose nanofiber composite for highly-sensitive flexible piezoresistive sensors in e-skin. Chem. Eng. J. 505, 159369 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.159369
  113. A.J. Boe, L.L. McGee Koch, M.K. O’Brien, N. Shawen, J.A. Rogers et al., Automating sleep stage classification using wireless, wearable sensors. npj Digit. Med. 2, 131 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-019-0210-1
  114. D. Yao, W. Wang, H. Wang, Y. Luo, H. Ding et al., Ultrasensitive and breathable hydrogel fiber-based strain sensors enabled by customized crack design for wireless sign language recognition. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35(10), 2416482 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202416482
  115. J. Zhong, Z. Li, M. Takakuwa, D. Inoue, D. Hashizume et al., Smart face mask based on an ultrathin pressure sensor for wireless monitoring of breath conditions. Adv. Mater. 34(6), 2270048 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202270048
  116. J. Sun, K. Xiu, Z. Wang, N. Hu, L. Zhao et al., Multifunctional wearable humidity and pressure sensors based on biocompatible graphene/bacterial cellulose bioaerogel for wireless monitoring and early warning of sleep apnea syndrome. Nano Energy 108, 108215 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2023.108215
  117. L. Yang, H. Wang, W. Yuan, Y. Li, P. Gao et al., Wearable pressure sensors based on MXene/tissue papers for wireless human health monitoring. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13(50), 60531–60543 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c22001
  118. T. Araki, T. Uemura, S. Yoshimoto, A. Takemoto, Y. Noda et al., Wireless monitoring using a stretchable and transparent sensor sheet containing metal nanowires. Adv. Mater. 32(15), 1902684 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201902684
  119. B. Liu, B. Lan, L. Shi, Y. Cheng, J. Sun et al., Batch fabrication of flexible strain sensors with high linearity and low hysteresis for health monitoring and motion detection. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(28), 36821–36831 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c07016
  120. X. Chen, C. Wang, W. Wei, Y. Liu, S.S. Ge et al., Flexible and sensitive pressure sensor with enhanced breathability for advanced wearable health monitoring. npj Flex. Electron. 9, 101 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-025-00469-6
  121. S. Han, Q. Xiao, Y. Liang, Y. Chen, F. Yan et al., Using flexible-printed piezoelectric sensor arrays to measure plantar pressure during walking for sarcopenia screening. Sensors 24(16), 5189 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/s24165189
  122. C. Sun, W. Li, W. Chen, A compressed sensing based method for reducing the sampling time of a high resolution pressure sensor array system. Sensors 17(8), 1848 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3390/s17081848
  123. X. Zhu, L. Lin, R. Wu, Y. Zhu, Y. Sheng et al., Portable wireless intelligent sensing of ultra-trace phytoregulator α-naphthalene acetic acid using self-assembled phosphorene/Ti3C2-MXene nanohybrid with high ambient stability on laser induced porous graphene as nanozyme flexible electrode. Biosens. Bioelectron. 179, 113062 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2021.113062
  124. S. Cho, H.J. Nam, C. Shi, C.Y. Kim, S.-H. Byun et al., Wireless, AI-enabled wearable thermal comfort sensor for energy-efficient, human-in-the-loop control of indoor temperature. Biosens. Bioelectron. 223, 115018 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2022.115018
  125. H. Xia, L. Wang, H. Zhang, Z. Wang, L. Zhu et al., MXene/PPy@PDMS sponge-based flexible pressure sensor for human posture recognition with the assistance of a convolutional neural network in deep learning. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 9, 155 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-023-00605-0
  126. Y. Dong, W. An, Z. Wang, D. Zhang, An artificial intelligence-assisted flexible and wearable mechanoluminescent strain sensor system. Nano-Micro Lett. 17(1), 62 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-024-01572-5
  127. Y. Han, Y. Cui, X. Liu, Y. Wang, A review of manufacturing methods for flexible devices and energy storage devices. Biosensors 13(9), 896 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13090896
  128. S. Mathew, K. Chintagumpala, A review of recent progress in flexible capacitance pressure sensors: materials design, printing methods, and applications. Adv. Compos. Hybrid Mater. 8(3), 236 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42114-025-01304-2
  129. D. Zhao, W. Jia, X. Feng, H. Yang, Y. Xie et al., Flexible sensors based on conductive polymer composites. Sensors 24(14), 4664 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/s24144664
  130. P. Yao, Q. Bao, Y. Yao, M. Xiao, Z. Xu et al., Environmentally stable, robust, adhesive, and conductive supramolecular deep eutectic gels as ultrasensitive flexible temperature sensor. Adv. Mater. 35(21), e2300114 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202300114
  131. C.-Z. Hang, X.-F. Zhao, S.-Y. Xi, Y.-H. Shang, K.-P. Yuan et al., Highly stretchable and self-healing strain sensors for motion detection in wireless human-machine interface. Nano Energy 76, 105064 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105064
  132. I.-A. Pavel, S. Lakard, B. Lakard, Flexible sensors based on conductive polymers. Chemosensors 10(3), 97 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors10030097
  133. X. Liang, M. Zhang, C.-M. Chong, D. Lin, S. Chen et al., Recent advances in the 3D printing of conductive hydrogels for sensor applications: a review. Polymers 16(15), 2131 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16152131
  134. S.A. Khan, H. Ahmad, G. Zhu, H. Pang, Y. Zhang, Three-dimensional printing of hydrogels for flexible sensors: a review. Gels 10(3), 187 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10030187
  135. H. Chu, W. Yang, L. Sun, S. Cai, R. Yang et al., 4D printing: a review on recent progresses. Micromachines 11(9), 796 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/mi11090796
  136. R.Y. Tay, Y. Song, D.R. Yao, W. Gao, Direct-ink-writing 3D-printed bioelectronics. Mater. Today 71, 135–151 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2023.09.006
  137. Y. Sun, J. Cui, S. Feng, J. Cui, Y. Guo et al., Projection stereolithography 3D printing high-conductive hydrogel for flexible passive wireless sensing. Adv. Mater. 36(25), 2400103 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202400103
  138. K. Pak, J.C. Yang, J.Y. Sim, T. Lee, D.H. Lee et al., Fabrication of multifunctional wearable interconnect E-textile platform using direct ink writing (DIW) 3D printing. npj Flex. Electron. 9, 48 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-025-00414-7
  139. F.-K. Liu, Z. Lu, J.-J. Cui, Y.-L. Guo, C. Liang et al., 4D printing micelle-enhanced shape memory polymer for minimally invasive implant. Chin. J. Polym. Sci. 43(11), 1991–1999 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10118-025-3423-6
  140. S. Wang, J. Yang, G. Deng, S. Zhou, Femtosecond laser direct writing of flexible electronic devices: a mini review. Materials 17(3), 557 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17030557
  141. H. Xu, L. Gao, Y. Wang, K. Cao, X. Hu et al., Flexible waterproof piezoresistive pressure sensors with wide linear working range based on conductive fabrics. Nano-Micro Lett. 12(1), 159 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-020-00498-y
  142. S. Gandla, M. Naqi, M. Lee, J.J. Lee, Y. Won et al., Highly linear and stable flexible temperature sensors based on laser-induced carbonization of polyimide substrates for personal mobile monitoring. Adv. Mater. Technol. 5(7), 2000014 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202000014
  143. X. Gong, K. Huang, Y.-H. Wu, X.-S. Zhang, Recent progress on screen-printed flexible sensors for human health monitoring. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 345, 113821 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2022.113821
  144. Y. Chen, J. Dong, Fabrication of flexible electronics by screen printing with PEDOT: PSS/graphene composite ink. Manuf. Lett. 44, 287–293 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2025.06.035
  145. G. Wu, L. Wu, H. Zhang, X. Wang, M. Xiang et al., Research progress of screen-printed flexible pressure sensor. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 374, 115512 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2024.115512
  146. M. Gong, P. Wan, D. Ma, M. Zhong, M. Liao et al., Flexible breathable nanomesh electronic devices for on-demand therapy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 29(26), 1902127 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201902127
  147. C. Lv, X. Zhou, C. Chen, X. Liu, J. Qian, Highly sensitive and flexible ammonia sensor based on PEDOT: PSS doped with Lewis acid for wireless food monitoring. Chem. Eng. J. 493, 152652 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.152652
  148. X. Wang, M. Zhang, L. Zhang, J. Xu, X. Xiao et al., Inkjet-printed flexible sensors: from function materials, manufacture process, and applications perspective. Mater. Today Commun. 31, 103263 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.103263
  149. Y.-T. Kwon, Y.-S. Kim, S. Kwon, M. Mahmood, H.-R. Lim et al., All-printed nanomembrane wireless bioelectronics using a biocompatible solderable graphene for multimodal human-machine interfaces. Nat. Commun. 11(1), 3450 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17288-0
  150. T. Pandhi, C. Cornwell, K. Fujimoto, P. Barnes, J. Cox et al., Fully inkjet-printed multilayered graphene-based flexible electrodes for repeatable electrochemical response. RSC Adv. 10(63), 38205–38219 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ra04786d
  151. E. Bihar, S. Wustoni, A.M. Pappa, K.N. Salama, D. Baran et al., A fully inkjet-printed disposable glucose sensor on paper. npj Flex. Electron. 2, 30 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-018-0044-y
  152. C. Tang, Z. Liu, Q. Hu, Z. Jiang, M. Zheng et al., Unconstrained piezoelectric vascular electronics for wireless monitoring of hemodynamics and cardiovascular health. Small 20(3), 2304752 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202304752
  153. Q. Liu, X.-X. Wang, W.-Z. Song, H.-J. Qiu, J. Zhang et al., Wireless single-electrode self-powered piezoelectric sensor for monitoring. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12(7), 8288–8295 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b21392
  154. Y.-S. Zhao, J. Huang, X. Yang, W. Wang, D.-G. Yu et al., Electrospun nanofibers and their application as sensors for healthcare. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 13, 1533367 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2025.1533367
  155. S. Niu, N. Matsuhisa, L. Beker, J. Li, S. Wang et al., A wireless body area sensor network based on stretchable passive tags. Nat. Electron. 2(8), 361–368 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-019-0286-2
  156. J. Yan, J. Liu, Q. Qu, X. Chen, J. Liu et al., Wireless human motion detection with a highly sensitive wearable pressure sensing technology. Adv. Mater. Technol. 8(12), 2201936 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202201936
  157. A. Rivadeneyra, M. Bobinger, A. Albrecht, M. Becherer, P. Lugli et al., Cost-effective PEDOT: PSS temperature sensors inkjetted on a bendable substrate by a consumer printer. Polymers 11(5), 824 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11050824
  158. H. Zhang, D. Zhang, B. Zhang, D. Wang, M. Tang, Wearable pressure sensor array with layer-by-layer assembled MXene nanosheets/Ag nanoflowers for motion monitoring and human–machine interfaces. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(43), 48907–48916 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c14863
  159. T. Kim, A.H. Kalhori, T.-H. Kim, C. Bao, W.S. Kim, 3D designed battery-free wireless origami pressure sensor. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 8, 120 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-022-00465-0
  160. H. Moeinnia, D.J. Agron, C. Ganzert, L. Schubert, W.S. Kim, Wireless pressure monitoring system utilizing a 3D-printed Origami pressure sensor array. npj Flex. Electron. 8, 21 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-024-00309-z
  161. W. Guo, C. Tan, K. Shi, J. Li, X.-X. Wang et al., Wireless piezoelectric devices based on electrospun PVDF/BaTiO3 NW nanocomposite fibers for human motion monitoring. Nanoscale 10(37), 17751–17760 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1039/C8NR05292A
  162. P. Wang, W. Yu, G. Li, C. Meng, S. Guo, Printable, flexible, breathable and sweatproof bifunctional sensors based on an all-nanofiber platform for fully decoupled pressure–temperature sensing application. Chem. Eng. J. 452, 139174 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.139174
  163. M. Ma, Y. Shang, H. Shen, W. Li, Q. Wang, Highly transparent conductive ionohydrogel for all-climate wireless human-motion sensor. Chem. Eng. J. 420, 129865 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.129865
  164. Y. Jiang, A.A. Trotsyuk, S. Niu, D. Henn, K. Chen et al., Wireless, closed-loop, smart bandage with integrated sensors and stimulators for advanced wound care and accelerated healing. Nat. Biotechnol. 41(5), 652–662 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-022-01528-3
  165. Y. Guo, F. Yin, Y. Li, G. Shen, J.-C. Lee, Incorporating wireless strategies to wearable devices enabled by a photocurable hydrogel for monitoring pressure information. Adv. Mater. 35(29), 2300855 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202300855
  166. Y. Park, K. Kwon, S.S. Kwak, D.S. Yang, J.W. Kwak et al., Wireless, skin-interfaced sensors for compression therapy. Sci. Adv. 6(49), eabe1655 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abe1655
  167. Y. Yu, Q. Wang, J. Cui, Y. Yuan, H. Zhang et al., Recent progress in flexible medical sensors: materials, mechanisms, and multifunctional applications. Anal. Chem. 97(50), 27478–27503 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.5c04956
  168. S. Chen, T.-L. Liu, Y. Jia, J. Li, Recent advances in bio-integrated electrochemical sensors for neuroengineering. Fundam. Res. 5(1), 29–47 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fmre.2023.11.012
  169. H. Kou, L. Zhang, Q. Tan, G. Liu, H. Dong et al., Wireless wide-range pressure sensor based on graphene/PDMS sponge for tactile monitoring. Sci. Rep. 9(1), 3916 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-40828-8
  170. S. Weng, J. Zhang, K. Gao, H. Zhu, T. Peng, Flexible graphene film-based antenna sensor for large strain monitoring of steel structures. Sensors 24(13), 4388 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134388
  171. D. Tang, Q. Wang, Z. Wang, Q. Liu, B. Zhang et al., Highly sensitive wearable sensor based on a flexible multi-layer graphene film antenna. Sci. Bull. 63(9), 574–579 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2018.03.014
  172. J. Liu, D. Wu, C. Liu, Q. Wang, H. Wang, Full-range on-body strain sensor of laser-induced graphene embedded in thermoplastic elastomer via hot pressing transfer for monitoring of the physiological signals. Adv. Mater. Technol. 9(7), 2301658 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202301658
  173. B. Napier, G. Matzeu, F.G. Omenetto, Multi-sensing yarns for continuous wireless sweat lactate monitoring. Commun. Mater. 5, 246 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43246-024-00680-4
  174. M. Wang, Y. Yang, J. Min, Y. Song, J. Tu et al., A wearable electrochemical biosensor for the monitoring of metabolites and nutrients. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 6(11), 1225–1235 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41551-022-00916-z
  175. E.O. Polat, G. Mercier, I. Nikitskiy, E. Puma, T. Galan et al., Flexible graphene photodetectors for wearable fitness monitoring. Sci. Adv. 5(9), eaaw7846 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw7846
  176. D. Zhang, S. Xu, X. Zhao, W. Qian, C.R. Bowen et al., Wireless monitoring of small strains in intelligent robots via a joule heating effect in stretchable graphene–polymer nanocomposites. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30(13), 1910809 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201910809
  177. W. Gao, H. Ota, D. Kiriya, K. Takei, A. Javey, Flexible electronics toward wearable sensing. Acc. Chem. Res. 52(3), 523–533 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.8b00500
  178. N. Qaiser, F. Al-Modaf, S.M. Khan, S.F. Shaikh, N. El-Atab et al., A robust wearable point-of-care CNT-based strain sensor for wirelessly monitoring throat-related illnesses. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(29), 2103375 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202103375
  179. S. Basu, G. Bisker, Near-infrared fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotubes for biosensing. Small 21(26), 2502542 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202502542
  180. J.-C. Chiou, C.-C. Wu, A wearable and wireless gas-sensing system using flexible polymer/multi-walled carbon nanotube composite films. Polymers 9(9), 457 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9090457
  181. K. Okada, T. Horii, Y. Yamaguchi, K. Son, N. Hosoya et al., Ultraconformable capacitive strain sensor utilizing network structure of single-walled carbon nanotubes for wireless body sensing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16(8), 10427–10438 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c19320
  182. T. Lei, L.-L. Shao, Y.-Q. Zheng, G. Pitner, G. Fang et al., Low-voltage high-performance flexible digital and analog circuits based on ultrahigh-purity semiconducting carbon nanotubes. Nat. Commun. 10, 2161 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10145-9
  183. M.L. Hakim, Z. Alfarros, H. Herianto, M.A. Muflikhun, High sensitivity flexible strain sensor for motion monitoring based on MWCNT@MXene and silicone rubber. Sci. Rep. 15, 3741 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-88372-y
  184. Y. Cai, J. Shen, G. Ge, Y. Zhang, W. Jin et al., Stretchable Ti3C2Tx MXene/carbon nanotube composite based strain sensor with ultrahigh sensitivity and tunable sensing range. ACS Nano 12(1), 56–62 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.7b06251
  185. J.H. Lee, J.-Y. Hwang, J. Zhu, H.R. Hwang, S.M. Lee et al., Flexible conductive composite integrated with personal earphone for wireless, real-time monitoring of electrophysiological signs. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10(25), 21184–21190 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b06484
  186. X. Wang, C. Jin, Z. Bai, Review of carbon nanotube-based flexible wearable strain sensors: from materials to applications for human body. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 395, 117071 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2025.117071
  187. C. Zheng, Q.-A. Zhou, J. Wang, D. Du, Wireless plant stresses monitoring with a wearable chemiresistor gas sensor at room temperature. Sens. Actuators, B Chem. 381, 133408 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2023.133408
  188. X. Xing, Y. Zou, M. Zhong, S. Li, H. Fan et al., A flexible wearable sensor based on laser-induced graphene for high-precision fine motion capture for pilots. Sensors 24(4), 1349 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041349
  189. H. Wang, Z. Zhao, P. Liu, X. Guo, A soft and stretchable electronics using laser-induced graphene on polyimide/PDMS composite substrate. npj Flex. Electron. 6, 26 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-022-00161-z
  190. D. Xu, P. Zhou, H. Yu, J. Chen, Y. Zhong et al., Bioinspired fabrication of graphene/PDMS composite materials for high-performance flexible pressure sensor. Sci. China Mater. 68(4), 1184–1195 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40843-024-3267-9
  191. J. Zhang, K. Gao, S. Weng, H. Zhu, Graphene nanoplatelets/polydimethylsiloxane flexible strain sensor with improved sandwich structure. Sensors 24(9), 2856 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/s24092856
  192. J.J. Park, W.J. Hyun, S.C. Mun, Y.T. Park, O.O. Park, Highly stretchable and wearable graphene strain sensors with controllable sensitivity for human motion monitoring. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7(11), 6317–6324 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b00695
  193. L. Cao, R. Wu, H. Xiang, X. Wu, X. Hu et al., Flexible highly-sensitive pressure sensor based on rGO/Fe nanowires composites for wearable human health detection. Front. Chem. 12, 1477651 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2024.1477651
  194. R.P. Verma, P.S. Sahu, A. Dabhade, B. Saha, Reduced graphene oxide-based stretchable strain sensor for monitoring of physical activities and minute movement. Materials Today: Proceedings 62, 5975–5981 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.960
  195. A. del Bosque, X.X. Fernández Sánchez-Romate, Á. De La Llana Calvo, P.R. Fernández, S. Borromeo et al., Highly flexible strain sensors based on CNT-reinforced Ecoflex silicone rubber for wireless facemask breathing monitoring via Bluetooth. ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 5(10), 8589–8599 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.3c01689
  196. K. Suzuki, K. Yataka, Y. Okumiya, S. Sakakibara, K. Sako et al., Rapid-response, widely stretchable sensor of aligned MWCNT/elastomer composites for human motion detection. ACS Sens. 1(6), 817–825 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.6b00145
  197. X. Zhang, L. Ke, X. Zhang, F. Xu, Y. Hu et al., Breathable and wearable strain sensors based on synergistic conductive carbon nanotubes/cotton fabrics for multi-directional motion detection. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(22), 25753–25762 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c04790
  198. A. Del Bosque, X.F. Sánchez-Romate, M. Sánchez, A. Ureña, Easy-scalable flexible sensors made of carbon nanotube-doped polydimethylsiloxane: analysis of manufacturing conditions and proof of concept. Sensors 22(14), 5147 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/s22145147
  199. M. Sang, K. Kang, Y. Zhang, H. Zhang, K. Kim et al., Ultrahigh sensitive Au-doped silicon nanomembrane based wearable sensor arrays for continuous skin temperature monitoring with high precision. Adv. Mater. 34(4), 2105865 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202105865
  200. D. Lu, Y. Yan, Y. Deng, Q. Yang, J. Zhao et al., Bioresorbable wireless sensors as temporary implants for in vivo measurements of pressure. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30(40), 2003754 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202003754
  201. T.Y. Kim, J.W. Mok, S.H. Hong, S.H. Jeong, H. Choi et al., Wireless theranostic smart contact lens for monitoring and control of intraocular pressure in glaucoma. Nat. Commun. 13(1), 6801 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-34597-8
  202. G. Xu, C. Cheng, W. Yuan, Z. Liu, L. Zhu et al., Smartphone-based battery-free and flexible electrochemical patch for calcium and chloride ions detections in biofluids. Sens. Actuat. B Chem. 297, 126743 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2019.126743
  203. T. Okabe, A. Shiroto, Y. Hiyama, K. Taguchi, Flexible thin-film thermal sensor for estimating thermal transport properties designed for biomaterial applications. Sci. Rep. 15, 18648 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-03304-0
  204. M. Vahdani, S. Mirjalali, M. Chowdary Karlapudi, S. Abolpour Moshizi, J. Kim et al., Highly stretchable strain sensors based on gold thin film reinforced with carbon nanofibers. Smart Mater. Manuf. 1, 100016 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smmf.2023.100016
  205. D.-Y. Youn, U. Jung, M. Naqi, S.-J. Choi, M.-G. Lee et al., Wireless real-time temperature monitoring of blood packages: silver nanowire-embedded flexible temperature sensors. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10(51), 44678–44685 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b11928
  206. B. Ciui, A. Martin, R.K. Mishra, B. Brunetti, T. Nakagawa et al., Wearable wireless tyrosinase bandage and microneedle sensors: toward melanoma screening. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 7(7), e1701264 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201701264
  207. Z. Lin, T. Li, S. Yang, B. Ji, Z. Wang, Revolutionizing flexible electronics with liquid metal innovations. Device 2(5), 100331 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.device.2024.100331
  208. M. Sun, P. Li, H. Qin, N. Liu, H. Ma et al., Liquid metal/CNTs hydrogel-based transparent strain sensor for wireless health monitoring of aquatic animals. Chem. Eng. J. 454, 140459 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.140459
  209. L. Wu, J. Zhao, Y. Li, H. Qin, X. Zhai et al., Biocompatible protein/liquid metal hydrogel-enabled wearable electronics for monitoring marine inhabitants’ health. Engineering 47, 213–221 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2024.12.030
  210. M. Gong, C. Tu, X. Lin, F. Wang, H. Lian et al., Liquid metal-graphene composite conductive nanofiber flexible pressure sensor for dynamic health monitoring. Mater. Des. 252, 113811 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2025.113811
  211. J. Zhu, J. Li, Y. Tong, T. Hu, Z. Chen et al., Recent progress in multifunctional, reconfigurable, integrated liquid metal-based stretchable sensors and standalone systems. Prog. Mater. Sci. 142, 101228 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2023.101228
  212. R. Zhu, Z. Li, G. Deng, Y. Yu, J. Shui et al., Anisotropic magnetic liquid metal film for wearable wireless electromagnetic sensing and smart electromagnetic interference shielding. Nano Energy 92, 106700 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106700
  213. T. Sakata, M. Hagio, A. Saito, Y. Mori, M. Nakao et al., Biocompatible and flexible paper-based metal electrode for potentiometric wearable wireless biosensing. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 21(1), 379–387 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/14686996.2020.1777463
  214. Y. Yang, Y. Sun, C. Luo, Q. Fu, C. Pan, Effect of metal’s inherent characteristics on sensibility of flexible metal-based composite sensor and its applications. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 327, 112754 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2021.112754
  215. Z. Huang, G. Wu, Y. Hu, F. Lv, R. Wang et al., Intrinsically temperature-insensitive and highly sensitive flexible wireless strain sensor. ACS Sens. 10(9), 6897–6907 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.5c01861
  216. S.H. Hong, T.Y. Kim, S. Shin, H. Lim, S.K. Hahn, Multifunctional monolithic gold nanowires for wireless smart wearable personalized healthcare device. Biomaterials 324, 123547 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2025.123547
  217. Z. Xue, Y. Gai, Y. Wu, Z. liu, Z. Li, Wearable mechanical and electrochemical sensors for real-time health monitoring. Commun. Mater. 5, 211 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43246-024-00658-2
  218. S. Lin, J. Fang, T. Ye, Y. Tao, S. Duan et al., A passive, skin-attachable multi-sensing patch based on semi-liquid alloy Ni-GaIn for wireless epidermal signal monitoring and body motion capturing. Electronics 10(22), 2778 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10222778
  219. Y.R. Jeong, J. Kim, Z. Xie, Y. Xue, S.M. Won et al., A skin-attachable, stretchable integrated system based on liquid GaInSn for wireless human motion monitoring with multi-site sensing capabilities. NPG Asia Mater. 9(10), e443 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/am.2017.189
  220. J. Mao, Z. He, Y. Wu, J. Cao, S. Zhao et al., Ultra-high resolution, multi-scenario, super-elastic inductive strain sensors based on liquid metal for the wireless monitoring of human movement. Mater. Adv. 5(14), 5813–5822 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ma00140k
  221. Y. Luo, J. Li, Q. Ding, H. Wang, C. Liu et al., Functionalized hydrogel-based wearable gas and humidity sensors. Nano-Micro Lett. 15(1), 136 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01109-2
  222. H. Huang, Z. Dong, X. Ren, B. Jia, G. Li et al., High-strength hydrogels: Fabrication, reinforcement mechanisms, and applications. Nano Res. 16(2), 3475–3515 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-022-5129-1
  223. M.Z. Quazi, J. Hwang, Y. Song, N. Park, Hydrogel-based biosensors for effective therapeutics. Gels 9(7), 545 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9070545
  224. J. Wu, J. Hong, X. Gao, Y. Wang, W. Wang et al., Recent progress in flexible wearable sensors utilizing conductive hydrogels for sports applications: characteristics, mechanisms, and modification strategies. Gels 11(8), 589 (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080589
  225. B. Jia, Z. Dong, X. Ren, M. Niu, S. Kong et al., Hydrogels composite optimized for low resistance and loading-unloading hysteresis for flexible biosensors. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 671, 516–528 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2024.05.142
  226. X. Zhao, Y. Liang, B. Guo, Z. Yin, D. Zhu et al., Injectable dry cryogels with excellent blood-sucking expansion and blood clotting to cease hemorrhage for lethal deep-wounds, coagulopathy and tissue regeneration. Chem. Eng. J. 403, 126329 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126329
  227. H. Huang, L. Han, J. Li, X. Fu, Y. Wang et al., Super-stretchable, elastic and recoverable ionic conductive hydrogel for wireless wearable, stretchable sensor. J. Mater. Chem. A 8(20), 10291–10300 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ta02902e
  228. S. Li, Y. Zhang, X. Liang, H. Wang, H. Lu et al., Humidity-sensitive chemoelectric flexible sensors based on metal-air redox reaction for health management. Nat. Commun. 13(1), 5416 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33133-y
  229. M. Li, Y. Zhang, L. Lian, K. Liu, M. Lu et al., Flexible accelerated-wound-healing antibacterial MXene-based epidermic sensor for intelligent wearable human-machine interaction. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32(47), 2208141 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202208141
  230. Y. Gao, D.T. Nguyen, T. Yeo, S.B Lim, W.X. Tan et al., A flexible multiplexed immunosensor for point-of-care in situ wound monitoring. Sci. Adv. 7(21), eabg9614 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abg9614
  231. P. Zhou, Z. Zhang, F. Mo, Y. Wang, A review of functional hydrogels for flexible chemical sensors. Adv. Sens. Res. 3(3), 2300021 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adsr.202300021
  232. Q. Li, B. Tian, J. Liang, W. Wu, Functional conductive hydrogels: from performance to flexible sensor applications. Mater. Chem. Front. 7(15), 2925–2957 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3qm00109a
  233. J. Cao, B. Wu, P. Yuan, Y. Liu, C. Hu, Progress of research on conductive hydrogels in flexible wearable sensors. Gels 10(2), 144 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10020144
  234. J. Xu, H. Wang, X. Du, X. Cheng, Z. Du, Self-healing, anti-freezing and highly stretchable polyurethane ionogel as ionic skin for wireless strain sensing. Chem. Eng. J. 426, 130724 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130724
  235. K. Yao, J. Zhou, Q. Huang, M. Wu, C.K. Yiu et al., Encoding of tactile information in hand via skin-integrated wireless haptic interface. Nat. Mach. Intell. 4(10), 893–903 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-022-00543-y
  236. M. Li, J. Pu, Q. Cao, W. Zhao, Y. Gao et al., Recent advances in hydrogel-based flexible strain sensors for harsh environment applications. Chem. Sci. 15(43), 17799–17822 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1039/D4SC05295A
  237. H. Huang, X. Zhang, Z. Dong, X. Zhao, B. Guo, Nanocomposite conductive tough hydrogel based on metal coordination reinforced covalent Pluronic F-127 micelle network for human motion sensing. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 625, 817–830 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2022.06.058
  238. J. Luo, Z. Liang, X. Zhao, S. Huang, Y. Gu et al., Piezoelectric dual-network tough hydrogel with on-demand thermal contraction and sonopiezoelectric effect for promoting infected-joint-skin-wound healing via FAK and AKT signaling pathways. Natl. Sci. Rev. 12(5), nwaf118 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf118
  239. J.H. Yoon, S.-M. Kim, Y. Eom, J.M. Koo, H.-W. Cho et al., Extremely fast self-healable bio-based supramolecular polymer for wearable real-time sweat-monitoring sensor. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11(49), 46165–46175 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b16829
  240. S.D. Lawaniya, S. Kumar, Y. Yu, K. Awasthi, Flexible, low-cost, and room temperature ammonia sensor based on polypyrrole and functionalized MWCNT nanocomposites in extreme bending conditions. ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 5(3), 1945–1954 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.2c02019
  241. M. Šetka, J. Drbohlavová, J. Hubálek, Nanostructured polypyrrole-based ammonia and volatile organic compound sensors. Sensors 17(3), 562 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3390/s17030562
  242. N. Tang, C. Zhou, L. Xu, Y. Jiang, H. Qu et al., A fully integrated wireless flexible ammonia sensor fabricated by soft nano-lithography. ACS Sens. 4(3), 726–732 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acssensors.8b01690
  243. F.A. Alamer, K. Althagafy, O. Alsalmi, A. Aldeih, H. Alotaiby et al., Review on PEDOT: PSS-based conductive fabric. ACS Omega 7(40), 35371–35386 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c01834
  244. W. Wang, Z. Li, H. Xu, L. Qiao, X. Zhang et al., Highly stretchable, shape memory and antioxidant ionic conductive degradable elastomers for strain sensing with high sensitivity and stability. Mater. Des. 222, 111041 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.111041
  245. Z. Li, H. Xu, Z. Deng, B. Guo, J. Zhang, Low modulus hydrogel-like elastomer sensors with ultra-fast self-healing, underwater self-adhesion, high durability/stability and recyclability for bioelectronics. Nano Today 59, 102469 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2024.102469
  246. P. Wu, L. Li, S. Shao, J. Liu, J. Wang, Bioinspired PEDOT: PSS-PVDF(HFP) flexible sensor for machine-learning-assisted multimodal recognition. Chem. Eng. J. 495, 153558 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.153558
  247. W. Fan, R. Lei, H. Dou, Z. Wu, L. Lu et al., Sweat permeable and ultrahigh strength 3D PVDF piezoelectric nanoyarn fabric strain sensor. Nat. Commun. 15, 3509 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47810-7
  248. S. Li, Z. Wu, H. Fan, M. Zhong, X. Xing et al., Flexible stretchable strain sensor based on LIG/PDMS for real-time health monitoring of test pilots. Sensors 25(9), 2884(2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/s25092884
  249. X. Zhu, Y. Zhou, C. Ye, Preparation and performance of AgNWs/PDMS film-based flexible strain sensor. Materials 16(2), 641 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020641
  250. S. Mishra, Y.-S. Kim, J. Intarasirisawat, Y.-T. Kwon, Y. Lee et al., Soft, wireless periocular wearable electronics for real-time detection of eye vergence in a virtual reality toward mobile eye therapies. Sci. Adv. 6(11), eaay1729 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay1729
  251. Y. Chen, S. Wang, Y. Liu, H. Deng, H. Gao et al., Ultra-low cost and high-performance paper-based flexible pressure sensor for artificial intelligent E-skin. Chem. Eng. J. 499, 156293 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.156293
  252. X. Mei, Z. Chen, A. Wen, J. Zhang, X. Wei et al., Wearable three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic electrochemical sensors for real-time sweat monitoring. Chem. Eng. J. 515, 163786 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.163786
  253. L. Li, W. Wang, G. Zhang, S. Wang, J. Yu et al., Flexible photoelectrochemical sensor based on dual electric field enhanced photothermoelectric activity for prehospital diagnosis of atherosclerosis. Adv. Funct. Mater. e31901 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202531901
  254. Y. Liu, C. Yiu, Z. Song, Y. Huang, K. Yao et al., Electronic skin as wireless human-machine interfaces for robotic VR. Sci. Adv. 8(2), eabl6700 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl6700
  255. Z. Cui, Q. Hua, Y. Shi, R. Wei, Z. Dong et al., Skin-integrated haptic interface system based on a stretchable pressure sensor array for wireless tactile visualization applications. Nano Energy 139, 110911 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.110911
  256. A. Li, J. Xu, S. Zhou, Z. Zhang, D. Cao et al., All-paper-based, flexible, and bio-degradable pressure sensor with high moisture tolerance and breathability through conformally surface coating. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34(52), 2410762 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202410762
  257. Y. Zhang, L. Zhang, K. Cui, S. Ge, X. Cheng et al., Flexible electronics based on micro/nanostructured paper. Adv. Mater. 30(51), 1801588 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201801588
  258. C. Feng, J. Xi, Q. Gao, S. Cheng, M. Shen, Guar gum-based multifunctional hydrogels with high sensitivity and negligible hysteresis for wearable electronics. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 677, 132409 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2023.132409
  259. Y. Liang, Q. Ding, H. Wang, Z. Wu, J. Li et al., Humidity sensing of stretchable and transparent hydrogel films for wireless respiration monitoring. Nano-Micro Lett. 14(1), 183 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-022-00934-1
  260. L. Chen, X. Chang, J. Chen, Y. Zhu, Ultrastretchable, antifreezing, and high-performance strain sensor based on a muscle-inspired anisotropic conductive hydrogel for human motion monitoring and wireless transmission. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14(38), 43833–43843 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c14120
  261. L. Wang, T. Xu, X. He, X. Zhang, Flexible, self-healable, adhesive and wearable hydrogel patch for colorimetric sweat detection. J. Mater. Chem. C 9(41), 14938–14945 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TC03905A
  262. Q. He, H. Wang, J. Zhang, N.G. Arekhloo, X. Karagiorgis et al., A wearable and highly sensitive PVDF–TrFE–BaTiO3 piezoelectric sensor for wireless monitoring of arterial signal. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 7(16), 7562–7571 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.5c00548
  263. S. Azimi, A. Janqamsari, A. Jafari, M.T. Rayati, E. Noori et al., PVDF composite fibers for wireless fall-alert detection. Mater. Today Commun. 38, 107899 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.107899
  264. Y. Zhuang, X. Wang, P. Lai, J. Li, L. Chen et al., Wireless flexible system for highly sensitive ammonia detection based on polyaniline/carbon nanotubes. Biosensors 14(4), 191 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/bios14040191
  265. N.R. Jalal, T. Madrakian, M. Ahmadi, A. Afkhami, S. Khalili et al., Wireless wearable potentiometric sensor for simultaneous determination of pH, sodium and potassium in human sweat. Sci. Rep. 14, 11526 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62236-3
  266. Y.-F. Wang, T. Sekine, Y. Takeda, K. Yokosawa, H. Matsui et al., Fully printed PEDOT: PSS-based temperature sensor with high humidity stability for wireless healthcare monitoring. Sci. Rep. 10, 2467 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59432-2
  267. Q. Zhang, H. Zhang, J. Liang, X. Zhao, B. Li et al., Ti3C2Tx-MXene/PET textile-based flexible pressure sensor for wearable pulse monitoring. J. Mater. Chem. C 11(44), 15638–15648 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1039/d3tc02970k
  268. Y.M. Shahandashti, S. Larijani, M. Eskandari, A. Zarepour, A. Khosravi et al., Biomedical potentials of MXene-based self-powered wearable devices: the future of next-generation wearables. RSC Adv. 15(40), 33773–33803 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1039/D5RA04611D
  269. M.S. Ali, M.S. Ali, S. Bhandari, S. Saini, S. Karmakar et al., Recent progress on MXene-polymer nanocomposites and their applications. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 45, e01563 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2025.e01563
  270. F. Chen, J. Wang, L. Chen, H. Lin, D. Han et al., A wearable electrochemical biosensor utilizing functionalized Ti3C2Tx MXene for the real-time monitoring of uric acid metabolite. Anal. Chem. 96(9), 3914–3924 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05672
  271. Y. Cao, Y. Guo, Z. Chen, W. Yang, K. Li et al., Highly sensitive self-powered pressure and strain sensor based on crumpled MXene film for wireless human motion detection. Nano Energy 92, 106689 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106689
  272. S. Zhang, A. Chhetry, M. Abu Zahed, S. Sharma, C. Park et al., On-skin ultrathin and stretchable multifunctional sensor for smart healthcare wearables. npj Flex. Electron. 6, 11 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41528-022-00140-4
  273. J. Li, W. Song, Z. Yu, Z. Wang, F. Jiang et al., Interlocking structure based on AgNWs/Ti3C2Tx hybrid for self-powered bioelectronic. Nano Energy 147, 111625 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2025.111625
  274. T. Sun, B. Feng, J. Huo, Y. Xiao, W. Wang et al., Artificial intelligence meets flexible sensors: emerging smart flexible sensing systems driven by machine learning and artificial synapses. Nano-Micro Lett. 16(1), 14 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01235-x
  275. P. Zhai, W. Xu, G. Duan, Y. Wu, M. Qi et al., Artificial intelligence-integrated wearable biomedical devices for cancer management. J. Natl. Cancer Cent. 5(6), 561–576 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jncc.2025.09.001
  276. B. Jia, G. Li, E. Cao, J. Luo, X. Zhao et al., Recent progress of antibacterial hydrogels in wound dressings. Mater. Today Bio 19, 100582 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100582
Read More
Author biographies are not available.
Download this PDF file
PDF

Most read articles by the same author(s)